Figure 11.

SEM images of cation and anion exchange membranes and profiled plastics. The images in the upper row were in contact with river water, whereas the images in the lower row where in contact with seawater. The four images at the left side are obtained from flat membranes (stack 1, river water side and seawater side), the four images at the right side are obtained from profiled membranes (stack 2) and profiled plastics (stack 3). Most images were saved at a magnification of 5000×, only the flat (cation exchange membrane) in contact with seawater was saved at 10,000×, to see the spherical deposition. Remnants of diatoms, bacteria and spherical deposition are indicated by arrows. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [90]. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.