Table 3.

Summary of Organ-Specific Side Effects of High-Dose or Prolonged GC Therapy.

Organ	Side Effects
Kidney	Increased sodium retention and potassium excretion
Musculoskeletal system	Osteoporosis, osteonecrosis, myopathy and atrophy, and growth retardation,
Cardiovascular system	Dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperglycemia, lipodystrophy and weight gain, thrombosis, and vasculitis
Adrenal gland	Adrenal atrophy and Cushing’s syndrome
Skin	Atrophy, delayed wound healing, erythema, hypertrichosis, perioral dermatitis, petechiae, glucocorticoid-induced acne, striae rubrae distensae, and telangiectasia
Eyes	Cataracts, glaucoma, myopia, exophthalmos, papilledema, chorioretinopathy, and subconjunctival hemorrhages.
Central nervous system	Depression, psychosis, bipolar disorders, delirium, panic attacks, obsessive–compulsive disorder, anxiety, insomnia, catatonia, and cognitive impairment
Gastrointestinal tract	Bleeding, pancreatitis, and peptic ulcer
Immune system	Broad immunosuppression; activation of latent viruses; increased risk of bacterial, fungal, and viral infections.
Reproductive system	Delayed puberty, fetal growth retardation, hypogonadism, gestational diabetes, hypertension, preeclampsia, premature rupture of membranes, and risk of cleft palate

Adapted from Rhen et al. [42].