FIGURE 5.

Pharmacological mechanisms of rhein in diabetes mellitus. Rhein maintains glucose homeostasis by anti-inflammation, alleviating renal lesions, improving insulin resistance, improving lipid metabolism, anti-oxidative stress, maintaining mitochondrial respiratory function, improving gut microbiota, and improving β -cell functional. GSK-3 β, Glycogen synthase kinase 3 β; PPAR- γ ,peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ ; NF-κ B, nuclear factor kappa-B; HDAC3, histone deacetylase 3; NLRP3, NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3; IL-6, Interleukin-6; IL-1 β ,Interleukin-1 β ; TNF- α ,tumor necrosis factor α ; IKK β ,inhibitor of kappa B kinase β ;Foxo3 α, Forkhead box 03 α ; SIRT1, sirtuin 1; HBP, Hexosamine pathway; TC, Serum total cholesterol; HDL-C,High density liptein cholesterol; TG, triacylglycerol; LDL-C, Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol; VLDL,very low-density lipoprotein; SOD, Superoxide dismutase; CAT,Catalase from micrococcus lysodeiktic; GSH,glutathione,reduced; GSSG, glutathione, oxydized; MDA, malonaldehyde; ROS, reactive oxygen species; Drpl,Dynamin-related protein 1; AMPK,Adenosine 5' -monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase; GLP-1,glucagon-like peptide-1; Bcl-2,B-cell lymphoma-2; BAX,BCL2-Associated X.