Table 3.

The association of poverty with subcortical regional brain morphology (N = 2166).

	N	Mean hippocampus volume			Mean amygdala volume
		B	95%CI	p value	B	95%CI	p value
Never poverty	1724	Ref.			Ref.
Ever poverty	442	− 0.05	− 0.15 to 0.06	0.35	− 0.11	− 0.21 to − 0.004	0.04
Overall periodical effects
No poverty in pregnancy	1840	Ref.			Ref.
Poverty in pregnancy, all	326	− 0.03	− 0.15 to 0.09	0.63	− 0.18	− 0.30 to − 0.07	< 0.01 **
No poverty in childhood	1835	Ref.			Ref.
Poverty in childhood, all	331	0.00	− 0.11 to 0.11	0.96	− 0.05	− 0.16 to 0.06	0.34
Specific periodical effects
Never poverty	1724	Ref.			Ref.
Poverty in pregnancy only	111	− 0.12	− 0.28 to 0.04	0.15	− 0.18	− 0.35 to − 0.02	0.03
Poverty in childhood only	116	− 0.06	− 0.22 to 0.09	0.42	0.03	− 0.13 to 0.18	0.75
Chronic poverty	215	0.01	− 0.13 to 0.15	0.87	− 0.17	− 0.32 to − 0.03	0.02

Models adjusted for child age at brain measurement, child sex, maternal ethnicity, maternal IQ, maternal educational attainment at pregnancy, maternal and paternal psychiatry symptoms at pregnancy and total intracranial volume.

All brain measures of outcome are standardized.

Ever poverty is a total of "poverty in pregnancy only", "poverty in childhood only" and "chronic poverty".

** indicates adjusted p value < 0.01.

Adjusted p values are obtained by considering the multiple comparisons (four tests for ever, pragnant any and childhood any poverty and 12 tests (= four brain metrics × 3 timings of exposure) for pregnant, childhood and chronic poverty) with the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate method.