Table 4.
the association of poverty wth brain morphology among children of Dutch majority and non-Western minority ethnic groups (N = 1895).
| N | Total brain volume | Cortical gray matter volume | Cerebral white matter volume | Mean hippocampus volume | Mean amygdala volume | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | 95%CI | p value | B | 95%CI | p value | B | 95%CI | p value | B | 95%CI | p value | B | 95%CI | p value | ||
| Dutch (N = 1365) | ||||||||||||||||
| Never poverty | 1250 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||
| Ever poverty | 115 | − 0.21 | − 0.38 to − 0.04 | 0.02 | − 0.18 | − 0.36 to − 0.004 | 0.04 | − 0.22 | − 0.40 to − 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.03 | − 0.13 to 0.19 | 0.68 | − 0.07 | − 0.23 to 0.09 | 0.40 |
| No poverty in pregnancy | 1308 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||
| Poverty in pregnancy, all | 57 | − 0.17 | − 0.41 to 0.06 | 0.15 | − 0.18 | − 0.42 to 0.06 | 0.14 | − 0.17 | − 0.41 to 0.07 | 0.16 | 0.09 | − 0.13 to 0.31 | 0.41 | − 0.19 | − 0.40 to 0.03 | 0.09 |
| No poverty in childhood | 1272 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||
| Poverty in childhood, all | 93 | − 0.23 | − 0.41 to − 0.04 | 0.02 | − 0.18 | − 0.37 to 0.01 | 0.07 | − 0.26 | − 0.45 to − 0.06 | 0.01 * | 0.06 | − 0.11 to 0.24 | 0.50 | − 0.01 | − 0.19 to 0.16 | 0.89 |
| Non Western (N = 530) | ||||||||||||||||
| Never poverty | 233 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||
| Ever poverty | 297 | − 0.03 | − 0.20 to 0.15 | 0.76 | − 0.07 | − 0.24 to 0.11 | 0.45 | 0.01 | − 0.17 to 0.19 | 0.90 | − 0.12 | − 0.28 to 0.03 | 0.13 | − 0.15 | − 0.31 to 0.004 | 0.06 |
| No poverty in pregnancy | 285 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||
| Poverty in pregnancy, all | 245 | − 0.02 | − 0.19 to 0.16 | 0.86 | − 0.06 | − 0.24 to 0.11 | 0.48 | 0.04 | − 0.14 to 0.22 | 0.67 | − 0.10 | − 0.26 to 0.06 | 0.21 | − 0.21 | − 0.37 to − 0.05 | 0.01 * |
| No poverty in childhood | 310 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||||||||
| Poverty in childhood, all | 220 | − 0.08 | − 0.25 to 0.09 | 0.36 | − 0.09 | − 0.26 to 0.08 | 0.29 | − 0.05 | − 0.23 to 0.12 | 0.54 | − 0.05 | − 0.20 to 0.11 | 0.54 | − 0.06 | − 0.22 to 0.09 | 0.41 |
Models for Dutch adjusted for child age at brain measurement, child sex, maternal education at pregnancy, maternal IQ, maternal and paternal psychiatric symptoms at pregnancy.
Models for non-Western adjusted for Dutch model covariates + detailed maternal ethnicity [Cape Verdean, Moroccan, Dutch Antillean, Surinamese, Turkish, African, middle and south American and Asian (except for Indonesian and Japanese)].
Models for subcortical regions additionally adjusted for total intracranial volume.
All brain measures of outcome are standardized.
Ever poverty is a total of "poverty in pregnancy only", "poverty in childhood only" and "chronic poverty".
* indicates adjusted p values < 0.05.
Adjusted p values are obtained by considering the multiple comparisons (four tests for ever, pragnant any and childhood any poverty) with the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate method.