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Bladder cancer-associated microbiota in different sample types. Urine, fresh frozen tissue, and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue from patients with BC can be used for microbiome analysis. Meanwhile, with the development of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, various methods for microbiome analysis are available: amplicon sequencing (16S, 18S), shotgun metagenomic sequencing, 2bRAD-M, and microbiome metabolomics.
