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. 2023 Jan 10;9:1046463. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1046463

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Copyright © 2023 Zancheta Ricardo, Duran, Grilo, Rebolledo, Díaz-Torrente, Reyes and Corvalán.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Proportion (%) of NOVA food groups using three methods to identify UPF in foods and beverages (n = 1,861). MPF, minimally processed foods; PCI, processed culinary ingredients; PF, processed foods; UPF, ultra-processed foods. In “classic method,” UPF was identified by using food description; in “ingredient marker method,” by searching for substances not commonly used in traditional recipes and names of functional classes of cosmetic additives in the lists of ingredients; and in “food additive method” by searching for UPF ingredient markers, names of functional classes and all individual names of cosmetic additives.