Table 2.
Health utility values stratified by characteristics of respondents, 2008–2020
| Characteristics | Mean health utility values a (SD) | ES b (95% CI) | p value* | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2008 (N = 25,939) | 2013 (N = 22,138) | 2020 (N = 19,177) | |||
| Total | 0.948 (0.102) | 0.942 (0.103) | 0.939 (0.168) | 0.070 (0.051, 0.089) | < 0.001 |
| Gender | |||||
| Male | 0.950 (0.102) | 0.946 (0.097) | 0.944 (0.167) | 0.046 (0.020, 0.073) | < 0.001 |
| Female | 0.946 (0.101) | 0.939 (0.108) | 0.933 (0.169) | 0.093 (0.067, 0.120) | < 0.001 |
| Ethnic group | |||||
| Han Chinese | 0.948 (0.101) | 0.942 (0.103) | 0.939 (0.168) | 0.070 (0.051, 0.089) | < 0.001 |
| Others | 0.939 (0.116) | 0.937 (0.100) | 0.930 (0.168) | 0.068 (−0.074, 0.210) | < 0.001 |
| Age group (years) | |||||
| 18–29 | 0.972 (0.026) | 0.971 (0.031) | 0.994 (0.067) | 0.483 (0.422, 0.544) | < 0.001 |
| 30–39 | 0.971 (0.029) | 0.968 (0.044) | 0.993 (0.050) | 0.535 (0.479, 0.592) | < 0.001 |
| 40–49 | 0.967 (0.046) | 0.963 (0.051) | 0.984 (0.078) | 0.335 (0.282, 0.388) | < 0.001 |
| 50–59 | 0.959 (0.065) | 0.953 (0.073) | 0.959 (0.129) | 0.057 (0.014, 0.100) | < 0.001 |
| 60–69 | 0.938 (0.117) | 0.935 (0.106) | 0.934 (0.161) | 0.027 (−0.014, 0.068) | < 0.001 |
| ≥ 70 | 0.867 (0.201) | 0.866 (0.189) | 0.834 (0.267) | 0.140 (0.093, 0.186) | < 0.001 |
| Commercial medical insurance | |||||
| Yes | 0.967 (0.043) | 0.958 (0.061) | 0.972 (0.108) | 0.143 (0.066, 0.221) | < 0.001 |
| No | 0.947 (0.103) | 0.942 (0.104) | 0.935 (0.173) | 0.089 (0.069, 0.108) | < 0.001 |
| Recipients of medical assistance | |||||
| Yes | 0.894 (0.154) | 0.869 (0.181) | 0.819 (0.317) | 0.290 (0.140, 0.441) | < 0.001 |
| No | 0.949 (0.101) | 0.943 (0.102) | 0.941 (0.162) | 0.058 (0.039, 0.077) | < 0.001 |
| Marital status | |||||
| Unmarried | 0.967 (0.052) | 0.961 (0.069) | 0.975 (0.119) | 0.146 (0.084, 0.209) | < 0.001 |
| Married | 0.952 (0.094) | 0.946 (0.095) | 0.943 (0.160) | 0.070 (0.049, 0.091) | < 0.001 |
| Widowed | 0.878 (0.188) | 0.877 (0.180) | 0.835 (0.264) | 0.195 (0.124, 0.265) | < 0.001 |
| Divorced | 0.962 (0.041) | 0.950 (0.070) | 0.959 (0.138) | 0.200 (0.032, 0.368) | < 0.001 |
| Education | |||||
| Primary or below | 0.922 (0.147) | 0.912 (0.146) | 0.880 (0.233) | 0.224 (0.187, 0.262) | < 0.001 |
| Junior high school | 0.959 (0.075) | 0.951 (0.086) | 0.948 (0.150) | 0.097 (0.067, 0.127) | < 0.001 |
| Senior high school | 0.960 (0.072) | 0.950 (0.084) | 0.954 (0.140) | 0.053 (0.012, 0.094) | < 0.001 |
| College or above | 0.964 (0.056) | 0.958 (0.066) | 0.977 (0.103) | 0.222 (0.175, 0.269) | < 0.001 |
| Employment status | |||||
| Employed | 0.968 (0.041) | 0.964 (0.048) | 0.987 (0.069) | 0.392 (0.362, 0.422) | < 0.001 |
| Retired | 0.921 (0.146) | 0.917 (0.136) | 0.918 (0.184) | 0.029 (−0.006, 0.065) | < 0.001 |
| Student | 0.972 (0.023) | 0.971 (0.027) | 0.988 (0.075) | 0.311 (0.182, 0.440) | < 0.001 |
| Unemployed | 0.932 (0.129) | 0.925 (0.127) | 0.897 (0.220) | 0.197 (0.161, 0.233) | < 0.001 |
| Hypertension | |||||
| Yes | 0.902 (0.163) | 0.909 (0.142) | 0.894 (0.216) | 0.078 (0.043, 0.114) | < 0.001 |
| No | 0.959 (0.079) | 0.954 (0.083) | 0.963 (0.128) | 0.094 (0.071, 0.118) | < 0.001 |
| Diabetes | |||||
| Yes | 0.889 (0.180) | 0.894 (0.163) | 0.885 (0.224) | 0.047 (−0.013, 0.107) | < 0.001 |
| No | 0.951 (0.096) | 0.947 (0.095) | 0.947 (0.156) | 0.029 (0.009, 0.049) | < 0.001 |
| Other chronic diseases | |||||
| Yes | 0.869 (0.194) | 0.862 (0.183) | 0.810 (0.289) | 0.270 (0.202, 0.337) | < 0.001 |
| No | 0.963 (0.064) | 0.952 (0.084) | 0.947 (0.154) | 0.140 (0.120, 0.160) | < 0.001 |
| Number of illnesses in 2 weeks | |||||
| 0 | 0.951 (0.096) | 0.950 (0.087) | 0.944 (0.160) | 0.052 (0.033, 0.072) | < 0.001 |
| 1 | 0.905 (0.165) | 0.868 (0.186) | 0.891 (0.217) | 0.211 (0.131, 0.292) | < 0.001 |
| 2 or more | 0.894 (0.165) | 0.829 (0.205) | 0.837 (0.284) | 0.365 (0.202, 0.528) | < 0.001 |
| Hospitalizations in 12 months | |||||
| Yes | 0.857 (0.223) | 0.871 (0.188) | 0.803 (0.304) | 0.207 (0.116, 0.299) | < 0.001 |
| No | 0.953 (0.089) | 0.946 (0.095) | 0.944 (0.158) | 0.016 (−0.004, 0.036) | 0.015 |
* Significant changes in health utility values (p < 0.05) were found from 2008 to 2020 in all independent variables by Kruskal-Wallis H tests
a The EQ-5D-3L responses were mapped to EQ-5D-5L responses by the UK response mapping algorithm [28] and then converted to utility values for the mapped responses using the excepted-utility method [29]
b Effect sizes were calculated as the difference between the mean utility of two groups divided by the pooled standard deviation and effect sizes of 0.8 are defined as large, 0.5 to 0.79 as moderate, and 0.2 to 0.49 as small
Abbreviation: 95% CI, 95% confidence interval; ES, effect sizes, SD, standard deviation