TABLE 1.

Key findings in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) studies from Latin America.

Pathogenesis		References
Genetic	Several genes have been associated with SLE in Hispanic populations; IRF5 has been strongly associated in this group.	(4, 42, 43)
Biomarkers
Lupus nephritis	NGAL, MCP1, TWEAK urinary transferrin and ceruloplasmin have been found to be relevant.	(39–41)
Disease characteristics
Disease activity	Mestizo and African-Latin American racial and ethnic background have been associated with higher disease activity early in the course of the disease while antimalarial use and having medical coverage have been found to be protective.	(6)
Lupus nephritis	Discoid lupus has been found to be protective of its occurrence while bullous lupus has been associated with a higher risk of its occurrence.	(24, 25)
Outcomes
Remission/low disease activity	Lower risk of damage, lower rate of hospitalization, better HRQoL.	(32, 35)
Renal damage	Antimalarial use and higher socioeconomic status have been found to be protective of the occurrence of renal damage while male gender, hypertension and renal activity have been associated with a higher risk of its occurrence.	(26)
HRQoL	Flares have been predictive of poorer HRQoL while depression and fibromyalgia have been associated with poorer HRQoL.	(34, 36)
Vaccination	Immunosuppressive drugs have been associated with a lower response to vaccines like influenza and SARS-CoV2.	(44, 46)

IRF5, Interferon regulatory factor 5; NGAL, neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin. MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; TWEAK, tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis; HRQoL, Health-related quality of life.