Table 1.
Summary of relevant TRF studies in rodents. Shading: dark gray indicates study on active-phase TRF, light gray indicates both active and rest-phase TRF included in the studies, no shading indicates all TRF was during the rest phase.
| Study | Title | Species/Sex/Age at beginning | Feeding times of TRF intervention | Diet | Length of intervention | Effects on body weight and energy balance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hatori et al., 2012 | Time-restricted feeding without reducing caloric intake prevents metabolic diseases in mice fed a high-fat diet | C57BL/6J/Males/12 weeks | 1) ZT13–21, 2) ALF | 1) 61% fat (Lab diet, 58Y1), 2) NC ALF control | 18 weeks |
BW: TRF groups lower than ALF groups; Highest in HFD ALF EI: No differences EE: Higher in TRF groups compared to ALF; Higher in HFD compared to chow Activity: Higher in TRF compared to ALF during the late night |
| Chaix et al., 2014 | Time-restricted feeding is a preventative and therapeutic intervention against diverse nutritional challenges | C57BL/6J/Males/8–12 weeks | 1) ZT13–22, 2) ZT12–24, 3) ZT10–1 4) ALF | 1) 60% fat (Lab diet, 58Y1), 2) 60% fructose diet (Harlan-TD89247), 3) FS diet (Research Diets-D12266B), 4) NC | 9, 12 or 15 weeks |
BW: Lower in TRF compared to ALF on all diets (1,2, and 3) excluding NC EI: No differences |
| Zarrinpar et al., 2014 | Diet and feeding pattern affect the diurnal dynamics of the gut microbiome | C57BL/6J/Males/10 weeks | 1) ZT13–21, 2) ALF | 1) 60% fat (Lab diet, 58Y1), 2) NC ALF control | 12–38 weeks | BW: Lower in HFD TRF compared to HFD ALF; HFD TRF similar to NC ALF |
| Chung et al., 2016 | Time-restricted feeding improves insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in a mouse model of postmenopausal obesity | C57BL/6NCrl/females with ovarectomy/Ovx at 7–8 weeks, 10 weeks HFD treatment start, TRF start at 19 weeks | 1) ZT16–24, 2) ALF | 1) 60% fat (Research diets, D12492), 2) NC ALF control | 8 weeks |
BW: HFD TRF lower than HFD ALF but higher than NC ALF EI: Highest in NC ALF; HFD TRF similar to HFD ALF measured in final week EE: NC highest; time of day differences between HFD TRF and HFD ALF Activity: Time of day differences; no overall differences between groups |
| Duncan et al., 2016 | Restricting feeding to the active phase in middle-aged mice attenuates adverse metabolic effects of a high-fat diet | C57BL/6J/Males/12 months | 1) ZT13–21, 2) ALF | 1) 60% fat (Research diets, D12492), 2) LFD ALF control | 21 weeks |
BW: Lower in HFD TRF compared to HFD ALF; Lower in LFD ALF compared to HFD TRF EI: No differences EE: No differences |
| Sundaram et al. 2016 | Time-restricted feeding reduces adiposity in mice fed a high-fat diet | C57BL/6/Males/3 weeks | 1) ZT13–21, 2) ZT12–24, 3) ALF | 1) 45% fat (modified AIN93G diet), 2) AIN93 ALF control | 11 weeks total, 9 weeks TRF |
BW: HFD TRF groups lower compared to HFD ALF EI: No difference between 12-hour HFD TRF and HFD ALF; Lowest in 8-hour HFD TRF EE: Oxygen consumption - higher in 12 hour HFD TRF compared to HFD ALF, but not different between the 8hr TRF and ALF or 12hr TRF groups; EE calculated from the Weir equations was lower in both TRF groups compared to ALF Activity: No differences |
| Olsen et al., 2017 | Time-restricted feeding on weekdays restricts weight gain: A study using rat models of high-fat diet-induced obesity | Sprague-Dawley rats/Males/5,13, & 18 weeks | 1) ZT13–2; 5 day TRF and 2 day ALF 2) ALF | 60% fat (Research diets, D12492) | 12/4/9 weeks |
BW: HFD TRF lower than HFD ALF EI: No differences EE: No differences |
| Woodie et al., 2018 | Restricted feeding for 9h in the active period partially abrogates the detrimental metabolic effects of a Western diet with liquid sugar consumption in mice | C57BL/6NHsd/Males/6–7 weeks | 1) ZT13–22, 2) ALF | 1) 45% fat, with 4.2% fructose/sucrose in water (Test diet, 5TJN), 2) NC | 1) 8 weeks HFSD, next 4 weeks of HFD+TRF. 2) 6 weeks HFSD, next 10 weeks of HFSD+TRF; metabolic phenotyping at 4 and 10 weeks |
BW: No difference in percent weight gain between ALF and TRF EI: Lower in HFD TRF compared to HFD ALF EE: Resting EE was lower in HFD TRF than HFD ALF |
| Cote, 2018 | Limiting feeding to the active phase reduces blood pressure without the necessity of caloric reduction or fat mass loss | Fisher 344 × Brown Norway (F344BN)/Males/6 months | 1) ZT12–24, 2) ALF | 1) HFD 60% (Research Diets, D12492), 2) NC | ~41 days | BW: No differences |
| Chaix et al., 2019 | Time-Restricted Feeding Prevents Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Mice Lacking a Circadian Clock | Bmal1 Liver-KO, RevErba, b Liver-dKO, CDKO/Males/8–12 weeks | 1) ZT13–21/22, 2) ALF | 60% fat (Lab diet, 58Y1) | 12 weeks |
BW: HFD TRF lower compared to HFD ALF EI: No differences EE: Higher in HFD TRF when compared to HFD ALF Activity: No difference |
| Mitchell et al., 2019 | Daily Fasting Improves Health and Survival in Males Mice Independent of Diet Composition and Calories | C57BL/6J/Males/4 months | 1) ZT9–20, 2) ZT9–23 | NIA diet (7.6% energy from sucrose, 17.7%) WIS purified diet (46% energy from sucrose, 24.4% from fat) | >150 weeks |
BW: NIA TRF lower compared to NIA ALF; No differences between WIS ALF and WIS TRF EI: No difference between TRF and ALF diets EE: N/A |
| Aouichat, 2020 | Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Body Weight Gain, Lipid Profiles, and Atherogenic Indices in Cafeteria-Diet-Fed Rats: Role of Browning of Inguinal White Adipose Tissue | Wistar rats/Males/120–130g | 1) ZT13–21, 2) ALF | Cafeteria (CAF): highly palatable, energy-dense human foods consisting of cookies, cereals, chocolate, crackers, chips, cheese, processed meat, etc.) | 4 weeks |
BW: TRF lower than ALF on same diets EI: No difference between TRF and ALF on same diets |
| Sorrell, 2020 | The central melanocortin system mediates the benefits of time-restricted feeding on energy balance | MC4RKO mice/Males/8 weeks, DIO | 1) ZT12–24, 2) {HFD ZT12–24; LFD ZT0–12}, 3) ALF | 1) 58% HFD (Research Diets, D12331), 2) NC | variable |
BW: DIO mice on intervention 1 or 2 weighed less compared to ALF: MC4RKO intervention 1 mice had lower body weight than MC4RKO ALF EI: interventions 1 and 2 lower EI than ALF EE: TRF lower compared to ALF in DIO and MC4R KO mice |
| Kelly, 2021 | Time-optimized feeding is beneficial without enforced fasting | C57BL/6J/Males/11 weeks | 1) ALF, 2) HFD ZT 12–18, 3) HFD ZT18–24, 4) ZT12–18 and NC at all other times, 5) HFD ZT 18–24 and NC at all other times | 1) HFD 60% (Research Diets, D12492), 2) NC | 8 weeks |
BW: TRF lower than HFD ALF in interventions 2, 3, 4, & 5 (intervention 4 lower than intervention 5) EI: No differences EE: No differences |
| Chaix at al., 2021 | Sex- and age-dependent outcomes of 9-hour time-restricted feeding of a Western high-fat high-sucrose diet in C57BL/6J mice | C57BL/6J /Males & Females /3mo & 1 y | 1) ZT13–22, 2) ALF | 1) Western diet 45% fat, 17% sucrose (Research Diet, D12451) | 12–13 weeks |
BW: HFHS TRF lower than HFHS ALF in males; No differences in females EI: No differences between ALF and TRF EE: No differences between TRF and ALF Activity: 1 year-old males TRF had higher activity than ALF counterparts; No differences in ALF vs. TRF at other ages |
| Das et al., 2021 | Time-restricted feeding normalizes hyperinsulinemia to inhibit breast cancer in obese postmenopausal mouse models | post-menopausal females: 7-week C57BL/6J + ovarectomy or follicle depletion | 1) ZT16–24, 2) ALF | 1) 60% HFD (Research Diets, 12492), 2) NC ALF control | 9 weeks |
BW: TRF lower when compared to ALF EI: No differences between TRF and ALF |
| Davis et al., 2021 | Time-restricted feeding rescues high-fat-diet-induced hippocampal impairment | C57BL/6J/Males/8 weeks | 1) ZT16–24, 2) ALF | 1) HFD 45% (Research Diets, D12451), 2) NC | 2 weeks |
BW: No differences between TRF and ALF on NC or HFD EI: No differences between ALF and TRF groups EE: N/A |
| Wang et al., 2021 | Time-Restricted Feeding Restored Insulin-Growth Hormone Balance and Improved Substrate and Energy Metabolism in MC4RKO Obese Mice | MC4RKO/Males mice on C57BL/6J background/males | 1) ZT13–22/24, 2) ALF | NC | 9 weeks |
BW: TRF lower than ALF EI: No differences EE: No differences |
| Regmi et al., 2021 | Early or delayed time-restricted feeding prevents metabolic impact of obesity in mice | C57BL/6J/Males/8 weeks | 1)early TRF: ZT12–22, 2) delayed TRF: ZT16–2, 3) ALF | 1) HFD 43% (Specialty Feeds, SF16–001) 2) NC | 12 weeks |
BW: Early TRF lower than Delayed TRF; Delayed TRF lower than ALF EI: No difference between groups on same diet EE: No differences Activity: Higher in TRF compared to ALF on same diets |
| Satoh et al.,, 2006 | Time-restricted feeding entrains daily rhythms of energy metabolism in mice | ICR/Males/6 weeks | 1) ZT2–11, 2) ZT11–2, 3) pre-and post TRF was ALF feeding | NC in relevant experiments | 5 days |
EI: no differences reported EE: lower in intervention 1 than during ALF; no differences between ALF and intervention 2 Activity: “slightly less” activity in intervention 1 versus ALF; not different between intervention 2 and ALF |
| Arble et al., 2009 | Circadian timing of food intake contributes to weight gain | C57BL/6/Males/9 weeks | 1) ZT0–12, 2) ZT12–24 | 60% fat (Research diets, D12492) | 6 weeks |
BW: Light fed animals weigh more than dark fed animals EI: No difference between light fed and dark fed Activity: No difference between light fed and dark fed |
| Bray et al., 2010 | Time-of-day-dependent dietary fat consumption influences multiple cardiometabolic syndrome parameters in mice | FVB/N/males/unspecified | 1) (LF ZT0–12, HF ZT12–24), 2) (HF ZT0–12, LF ZT12–24), 3) (LF ZT 12–24), 4) (HFD ZT 12–24), 5) {HFD ZT12–16, LF ZT16–20}, 6) (LF ZT12–20, HF ZT20–24), 7) (HF ZT12–16, LF ZT20–24), 8) (LF ZT12–16, HF ZT20–24) | 1)HFD 45% fat (Research diets, D12451), 2) LFD 10% fat (Research Diets D12450B) | 12 weeks |
Interventions 1 vs. 2
BW: No difference EI: No difference EE: Intervention 1 higher than intervention 2 Activity: no overall difference Interventions 3 vs. 4 BW: No difference EI: No difference EE & Activity: No difference Interventions 5 vs. 6BW: Higher for intervention 6 versus 5 EI: Higher for 6 vs 5 EE: Higher for 6 vs. 5 Activity: No difference Interventions 7 vs. 8 BW: Higher for intervention 8 vs. 7 EI: No difference EE & Activity: No differences |
| Fonken et al., 2010 | Light at night increases body mass by shifting the time of food intake | Swiss–Webster/Males/8 weeks | 1) ZT 15–1, 2) ZT1–15, 3) ALF (in 16:8 L:D or 16:8 L:Dim) | NC | 8 weeks |
BW: In L:D conditions, BW highest in intervention 2; in L:Dim conditions, BW lowest in intervention 1 EI: No differences |
| Salgado-Delgado et al., 2010 | Food intake during the normal activity phase prevents obesity and circadian desynchrony in a rat model of night work | Wistar rats/Males/11–12 weeks | 1) ZT0–12, 2) ZT12–24, 3) AL; Half of mice were on a shift-work model 5 out of 7 days where mice were in a slow rotating wheel ZT2–10 | NC | 5 weeks | No Forced Work Condition: BW: Highest in intervention 2 EI: no difference Forced Work: BW: Intervention 1 and 3 higher than intervention 2 EI: No difference *Total activity was not reported but forced work with ALF or light feeding altered activity rhythms to have more activity during the day and less at night |
| Tsai et al., 2013 | Influence of dark phase restricted high fat feeding on myocardial adaptation in mice | FVB/N/Males/12 weeks | 1) ZT12-ZT24, 2) ALF | 1) HFD 45% fat (Research diets, D12451), 2) NC | 12–16 weeks |
BW: TRF on HFD reduced body weight gain compared to ALF EI: No difference EE: TRF chow had lower energy expenditure than ALF HFD; No other group differences |
| Yasumoto, 2016 | Short-term feeding at the wrong time is sufficient to desynchronize peripheral clocks and induce obesity with hyperphagia, physical inactivity and metabolic disorders in mice | C57BL/6J/Males/6 weeks | 1) ZT2–10, 2) ZT 14–22 | HFHS 54.5% kcals fat + 20% w/w sucrose (Oriental Yeast, F2HFHSD) | 1 week |
BW: Higher BW and body fat in light phase fed mice compared to dark phase fed mice EI: Higher in light phase fed mice Activity: Total daily voluntary wheel running in light phase fed mice was lower than dark phase fed mice |
| Acosta-Rodriguez, 2017 | Mice under Caloric Restriction Self-Impose a Temporal Restriction of Food Intake as Revealed by an Automated Feeder System | C57BL/6J/Males/8 weeks + 2 weeks acclimation | 1) ZT0–12, 2) ZT12–24, 3) ALF | NC | 6 weeks |
BW: No differences Food intake: In the first 2.5 hours of feeding, ZT0–12 mice consume more than ALF mice; ZT12–24 mice show no differences Activity: Rhythms differ by feeding condition; Total activity comparisons not reported |
| Kentish et al., 2018 | Time-Restricted Feeding Prevents Ablation of Diurnal Rhythms in Gastric Vagal Afferent Mechanosensitivity Observed in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice | C57BL/6/Males/12 weeks | 1) ZT0–12, 2) ZT 12–24, 3) ALF | 1) 60% HFD or 2) NC | 8 weeks |
BW: No difference in body weight for any groups on chow; Both TRF groups weighed less than the ALF group EI: Lower in the light phase chow group versus the dark phase chow group; HFD TRF groups displayed no differences; Both HFD TRF groups lower than the HFD ALF group |
| Oishi et al., 2018 | Short-term time-restricted feeding during the resting phase is sufficient to induce leptin resistance that contributes to development of obesity and metabolic disorders in mice | C57BL/6, db/db, ob/ob/Males/8 weeks | 1) ZT2–10, 2) ZT14–22 | HFHS 54.5% kcals fat + 20% w/w sucrose (Oriental Yeast, F2HFHSD) | 2 weeks |
BW: Higher in light phase feeding than dark phase feeding EI: Lower at the start if intervention for light phase fed animals but no differences overall Activity: Lower in light phase fed mice |
| Abe et al., 2019 | Food deprivation during active phase induces skeletal muscle atrophy via IGF-1 reduction in mice | C57BL/6/Males/8 weeks | 1) ZT2–10, 2) ZT14–22 | HFHS 54.5% kcals fat + 20% w/w sucrose (Oriental Yeast, F2HFHSD) | 1 week |
BW: Lower in dark phase fed than light phase fed EI: No differences Activity: Lower in light phase fed than dark phase fed |
| Boucsein et al., 2019 | Hypothalamic leptin sensitivity and health benefits of time-restricted feeding are dependent on the time of day in males mice | C57BL/6/Males/16 weeks | 1) ZT3–9, 2) ZT9–15, 3) ZT15–21, 4) ZT 21–3, 5) ALF | 1) 10% LFD (Research Diets), 2) 60% HFD (Research Diets 12492) | 3 weeks |
BW: Higher in HFD ALF than all HFD TRF groups EI: Higher in HFD ALF than all HFD TRF groups; No differences among TRF groups EE: Lower in HFD ZT3–9 than HFD ALF; No differences between other HFD TRF and HFD ALF groups Activity: No differences between HFD ALF and HFD TRF groups |
| De Goede, 2020 | After-Effects of Time-Restricted Feeding on Whole-Body Metabolism and Gene Expression in Four Different Peripheral Tissues | Wistar/Males/8 weeks | 1) ZT1–11, 2) ZT13–23 | NC | 4 weeks |
BW: Light phase TRF weigh less than dark phase TRF and ALF; No difference between ALF and dark phase TRF EI: Dark phase TRF higher than light phase TRF but lower than ALF Activity: Not different between groups |
| Acosta-Rodriguez, 2022 | Circadian alignment of early onset caloric restriction promotes longevity in males C57BL/6J mice | C57BL/6J/Males/6 weeks | 1) ALF, 2) caloric restriction with: a) continuous feeding, b) bolus feeding @ ZT 0, c) bolus feeding ZT @12, d) continuous feeding ZT12–24, or e) continuous feeding ZT 0–12 | NC | aging survival study |
BW and EI: All CR groups less than ALF regardless of TRF Activity: Daytime feeding misaligns activity; ALF group had lower activity than CR groups at age 6–18 months |
| Szentermai, 2010 | Restricted feeding-induced sleep, activity, and body temperature changes in normal and preproghrelin-deficient mice | C57BL/6J and preproghrelin KO/Males/4 months | 1) ALF baseline, 2) ZT4–8 | NC | 12 days |
BW: KO and WT mice decreased body weight from baseline to post-TRF intervention Activity: Increased under TRF in WT mice but was reduced under TRF in the KO mice |
| Sherman et al., 2011 | Long-term restricted feeding alters circadian expression and reduces the level of inflammatory and disease markers | C57BL/6/Males/11 weeks | 1) ZT3–6, 2) ALF | NC | 16 weeks |
BW: Lower in TRF EI: Lower in TRF Activity: No difference |
| Sherman et al., 2012 | Timed high-fat diet resets circadian metabolism and prevents obesity | C57BL/6/Males/6 week | 1) ZT4–8, 2) ALF | 1) 42% HFD (made in house), 2) NC | 18 weeks |
BW: TRF HFD lower than ALF HFD* EI: ALF HFD higher than TRF HFD; NC ALF higher than NC TRF* Activity: Total activity was higher in TRF versus ALF groups; TRF NC was more active than TRF HFD *statistical comparisons not noted for BW or EI |
Abbreviations: BW- body weight, EI= energy intake, EE= energy expenditure, HF/HFD= High fat diet, LF/ LFD- low fat diet, NC= normal chow, HFHS= high fat high sucrose, RER= respiratory exchange ratio