Figure 2.

Pathways known to promote or inhibit the induction of cellular and humoral immune responses following mRNA vaccine immunization. Key pathways and immune processes identified by mouse studies are shown in solid lines. Black arrows denote processes shown to promote immune responses, while red lines denote inhibition. Dashed lines indicate where correlative data in humans or non‐human primates suggests an interaction between cell types or the mouse studies have identified a cytokine as important but the exact producer and target cell are unknown. Where cells have been shown to interact, but molecular mechanisms have not been determined, this is noted. Not all pathways have been examined for all different types of mRNA vaccines. The presented model is focused on data specifically in the context of nucleoside‐modified mRNA vaccines, except where specifically noted. See text for references for indicated pathways.