Table 3.
The Associations Between Ultra-Processed Food Consumption (Top Quartile of %kcal vs Bottom Quartiles) and Change in Cognitive Function Over Time, by Sex and BMI Group
| Executive | Attention | Language | Memory | Overall | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UPF (%kcal)* | Estimate (SE) | p Value | Estimate (SE) | p Value | Estimate (SE) | p Value | Estimate (SE) | p Value | Estimate (SE) | p Value | ||
| Meat (including poultry and fish) | Male (N = 343) |
Time |
−0.068
(0.009) |
<.0001 | 0.008 (0.010) | .427 |
−0.041
(0.007) |
<.0001 |
−0.475
(0.010) |
<.0001 |
−0.104
(0.007) |
<.0001 |
| UPF | 0.280 (0.089) |
.002 | 0.070 (0.103) | .499 | 0.133 (0.102) |
.195 | 0.065 (0.084) |
.438 | 0.159 (0.083) |
.054 | ||
| Time × UPF |
−0.037
(0.016) |
.021 | −0.000 (0.017) | .995 | 0.008 (0.012) |
.475 |
−0.013 (0.017) |
.441 |
−0.009 (0.012) |
.447 | ||
| Female (N = 225) |
Time |
−0.064
(0.012) |
<.0001 | 0.019 (0.011) | .096 |
−0.013
(0.008) |
.121 |
−0.182
(0.012) |
<.0001 |
−0.088
(0.008) |
<.0001 | |
| UPF |
−0.036 (0.125) |
.772 | 0.137 (0.136) | .314 | 0.052 (0.141) |
.710 | 0.073 (0.135) |
.591 | 0.094 (0.118) |
.428 | ||
| Time × UPF |
−0.039 (0.024) |
.102 | −0.069(0.023) | .004 † |
−0.000 (0.017) |
.958 |
−0.031 (0.025) |
.214 |
−0.054
(0.017) |
.002 ‡ | ||
| Dairy products | BMI <30 kg/m2 (N = 402) |
Time |
−0.078
(0.008) |
<.0001 | 0.008 (0.009) | .328 |
−0.036
(0.006) |
<.0001 |
−0.198
(0.008) |
<.0001 |
−0.110
(0.006) |
<.0001 |
| UPF | 0.091 (0.085) |
.284 | 0.107 (0.102) | .295 |
−0.143 (0.099) |
.149 |
−0.076 (0.083) |
.359 |
−0.024 (0.080) |
.761 | ||
| Time × UPF | 0.000 (0.015) |
.953 | −0.009 (0.017) | .575 | 0.014 (0.012) |
.233 | 0.020 (0.017) |
.237 | 0.013 (0.011) |
.272 | ||
| BMI ≥30 kg/m2 (N = 166) |
Time |
−0.066
(0.012) |
<.0001 | −0.002 (0.011) | .855 |
−0.013 (0.009) |
.184 |
−0.187
(0.014) |
<.0001 |
−0.106
(0.011) |
<.0001 | |
| UPF |
−0.016 (0.138) |
.909 | 0.003 (0.143) | .986 | 0.139 (0.141) |
.323 |
−0.113 (0.132) |
.394 | 0.011 (0.117) |
.925 | ||
| Time × UPF | 0.008 (0.022) |
.727 | 0.000 (0.021) | .998 |
−0.051
(0.018) |
.005 § | 0.020 (0.026) |
.449 |
−0.004 (0.020) |
.851 | ||
| Oils and spreads | Male (N = 343) |
Time |
−0.074
(0.008) |
<.0001 | −0.002 (0.009) | .821 |
−0.032
(0.007) |
<.0001 |
−0.185
(0.009) |
<.0001 |
−0.107
(0.007) |
<.0001 |
| UPF | 0.146 (0.091) |
.112 | 0.046 (0.109) | .672 | 0.183 (0.106) |
.084 | 0.105 (0.086) |
.222 | 0.157 (0.086) |
.071 | ||
| Time × UPF |
−0.016 (0.016) |
.311 | 0.029 (0.017) | .107 |
−0.025
(0.013) |
.048 |
−0.023 (0.018) |
.223 |
−0.017 (0.013) |
.198 | ||
| Female (N = 225) |
Time |
−0.065
(0.010) |
<.0001 | 0.011(0.010) | .275 |
−0.022
(0.008) |
.006 |
−0.186
(0.011) |
<.0001 |
−0.096
(0.008) |
<.0001 | |
| UPF | 0.007 (0.122) |
.955 | −0.048 (0.129) | .706 |
−0.337
(0.129) |
.010 |
−0.077 (0.127) |
.540 |
−0.099 (0.112) |
.377 | ||
| Time × UPF |
−0.069
(0.025) |
.005 ‖ | −0.037 (0.024) | .121 | 0.014 (0.017) |
.390 |
−0.027 (0.025) |
.279 |
−0.047
(0.018) |
.010 ¶ | ||
| BMI <30 kg/m2 (N = 402) |
Time |
−0.075
(0.007) |
<.0001 | 0.006(0.008) | .424 |
−0.032
(0.006) |
<.0001 |
−0.189
(0.008) |
<.0001 |
−0.104
(0.006) |
<.0001 | |
| UPF | 0.025 (0.086) |
.772 | −0.042 (0.105) | .688 |
−0.077 (0.102) |
.451 | 0.066 (0.087) |
.449 | 0.017 (0.083) |
.836 | ||
| Time × UPF |
−0.028 (0.016) |
.089 | 0.007 (0.019) | .722 | 0.008 (0.013) |
.531 |
−0.017 (0.018) |
.371 |
−0.018 (0.012) |
.171 | ||
| BMI ≥30 kg/m2 (N = 166) |
Time |
−0.049
(0.012) |
<.0001 | 0.000 (0.011) | .974 |
−0.013 (0.009) |
.176 |
−0.173
(0.013) |
<.0001 |
−0.090
(0.010) |
<.0001 | |
| UPF | 0.189 (0.138) |
.171 | 0.067 (0.139) | .631 | 0.111 (0.138) |
.425 |
−0.018 (0.127) |
.886 | 0.108 (0.116) |
.350 | ||
| Time × UPF |
−0.055
(0.022) |
.012 # | −0.020 (0.021) | .350 |
−0.054
(0.018) |
.003 ** |
−0.039 (0.025) |
.106 |
−0.057
(0.019) |
.004 § |
Notes: BMI = body mass index; SE = standard error; UPF = ultra-processed food. Models adjust for sex, age, education, smoking status, physical activity, BMI, HbA1C, duration with diabetes, mean total cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure. Sex and BMI were not added as covariates in models stratified by sex and BMI, respectively.
*%kcal/day adjusted for total calories using the residual method.
p-for interaction are:
†.018;
‡.009;
§ 0.008;
‖.006;
¶.018;
#.012,
**.034.
Values in bold indicate p value <.05.