Table 2.

Overview of included parent–child communication studies

Paper		Scale	Country	N	% fem	Sample description	Sample age in years			Parent–child communication M (SD)
Author	Year						Range	M	SD
Acuña and Kataoka	(2017)	PACS	USA	98	44.9	Community	n.a	13.1	1.2	Open 36.1 (9.9); problem 28.8 (8.4)
Asfour et al.	(2017)	PACS	USA	959	45.3	Communitya	n.a	13.8	0.7	68.9 (14.7)
Bartlett et al.	(2016)	PACS	USA	101	100	Community	11–15	12.6	0.9	69.6 (13.2)
Bireda and Pillay	(2018)	PACS	Ethiopia	809	47.1	Community	n.a	16.8	1.6	*Not interpretable
Brage et al.	(1993)	PACS	USA	156	60.3	Community	11–18	14.0	1.6
Cai et al.	(2021)	PACS	China	1439	45.7	Communityb	n.a	12.4	1.2
Caprara et al.	(2005)	PACS	Italy	380	51.3	Community	n.a	15.0‡	n.a	*Not interpretable
Carbonero et al.	(2017)	PACS	Spain	271	46.9	Community	11–15	n.a	n.a
Chen et al.	(2019)	PACS	China	1134	46.8	Community	11–16	13.2	1.1	*Not interpretable
Cho et al.	(2018)	PACS	South Korea	944	50.4	Community	16–18	16.5	0.6	*Not interpretable
Clark and Shields	(1997)	PACS	USA	339	53.1	Community	14–19	16.2	n.a	Open 29.6–40.1; problem 30.4–37.9
Collin et al.	(1995)	PACS	USA	78	53.8	Community	12–18	15.6	0.7	parent 66.1 (13.5); stepparent 57.7 (15.0)
Cordova et al.	(2014)	PACS	USA	746	47.9	Community	n.a	13.9	n.a	69.9 (14.8)
Cornell et al.	(1991)	PACS	USA	44	100	Community	13–17	14.9	n.a	Mother 68.9 (17.8); father 64.7 (19.5)
Daley	(2006)	PACS	USA	40	n.a	Clinical & community	n.a	13.7§	2.3§	Several means reported
De Los Reyes et al.	(2016)	PACS	USA	141	57	Communityc	15–18	17.0	0.7	Several means reported
Dickerson and Crase	(2005)	PACS	USA	18	44.4	Clinical	14–17	n.a	n.a	*Not interpretable
Estévez et al.	(2005)	PACS	Spain	983	52.8	Communityd	11–16	13.7	n.a
Farrell and Barnes	(1993)	PACS	USA	699	n.a	Community	13–16	n.a	n.a	Open 27.9–47.3; problem 20.7–33.0
Finan et al.	(2018)	PACS	USA	372	55	Community	n.a	16.1‡	0.7	62.0 (17.2)–67.0 (17.2)
Gosselin and David	(2007)	PACS	Canada	80	68.8	Community	n.a	14.0	2.0	Boys 69.2 (12.3), girls 66.7 (13.1)
Hadley et al.	(2013)	PACS	USA	71	n.a	Clinical	13–18	14.9	1.3	Open 35.5 (11.2); problem 29.8 (8.4)
Hartos and Power	(1997)	PACS	USA	161	50.3	Community	14–15	n.a	n.a	64.1 (13.0); subscales also reported
Hartos and Power	(2000a)	PACS	USA	161	50.3	Communitye	14–15	n.a	n.a
Hartos and Power	(2000b)	PACS	USA	82	43	Community	13–15	13.9	0.8	63.4 (12.8)
Heller et al.	(2006)	PACS	USA	236	59	Community	14–16	14.8	0.7	Open (mother) 33.8 (9.25); (father) 37.9 (8.6)
Henry and Lovelace	(1995)	PACS	USA	95	58.9	Community	14–18	16.1	1.2	68.9 (16.2)
Herrero et al.	(2006)	PACS	Spain	973	52.8	Communityf	11–16	13.7	1.6	Several means reported
Hill and Roberts	(2019)	PACS	USA	167	44.3	Community	11–19	n.a	n.a	*Not interpretable
Houck et al.	(2007)	PACS	USA	38	65.8	At risk	12–17	14.9	1.7	36.2 (1.5)-55.0 (10.5)
Howard et al.	(1999)	PACS	USA	333	43	Community	9–15	n.a	n.a	*not interpretable
Howard Sharp et al.	(2020)	PACS	USA	132	56.8	At risk & communityg	10–18§	13.2§	2.2§	Several means reported
Huizinga et al.	(2005)	PACS	Netherlands	212	56.6	At risk	11–18	15.1	2.3	Open 39.7 (6.6)–37.4 (7.2); problem 36.5 (7.4)–35.4 (5.8)
Jackson et al. (Study I)	(1998)	PACS	Netherlands	413	56.2	Community	13–17	n.a	n.a	Mother 77.6 (10.5); father 72.5 (11.2); subscales also reported
Jackson et al. (Study II)	(1998)	PACS	Netherlands	660	53.3	Community	13–15	n.a	n.a	Mother 74.8 (11.9); father 71.7 (12.8); subscales also reported
Jeong and Chun	(2010)	PACS	South Korea	578	55.5	Community	n.a	16.2	n.a
Jiménez et al.	(2019)	PACS	Spain	2399	50	Community	11–20	14.7	1.8	*Not interpretable
Keim et al.	(2017)	PACS	USA	185	52.4	At risk & communityh	10–17	13.5	2.4	Open 43.7(7.1)–33.9(11.0); problem 27.8(9.3)–22.9(7.3)
Kim and Park	(2011)	PACS	USA	77	39	Community	11–15	12.9	1.1
Kim et al.	(2018)	PACS	South Korea	402	44.5	Community	n.a.‖	n.a	n.a	Mother 63.0 (13.2); father 69.8 (15.1)
Kimiecik and Horn	(2012)	PACS	USA	173	58	Community	9–12	10.0	0.7	*Not interpretable
Knight et al.	(1992)	PACS	USA	303	n.a	Community	8–14	10.5	1.1
Lambert and Cashwell	(2004)	PACS	USA	100	58	Community	10–13	n.a	n.a	Mother 76.3 (14.6); father 68.2 (17.3)
Liu et al.	(2019)	PACS	China	2751	50.5	Community	13–19	14.9	1.9	*Not interpretable
López et al.	(2006)	PACS	Spain	843	53	Communityi	11–16	13.7	n.a	*Not interpretable
Lu et al.	(2020)	PACS	China	464	45.7	Communityj	11–17	n.a	n.a	Several means reported
Malcolm et al.	(2013)	PACS	USA	171	26.9	Communityk	n.a	14.9	1.2	63.7 (13.4)
Manczak et al.	(2018)	PACS	USA	194	100	Clinical	12–16	14.5	1.2
Marta	(1997)	PACS	Italy	279	53.8	Community	16–19	17.0	n.a	Several means reported
McNaughton et al.	(2015)	PACS	USA	53	49.1	Community	9–14	11.0	n.a	Mother 68.3 (7.9)–69.5 ( 9.5)
de la Rubia and Morales	(2012)	PACS	Mexico	198	43.4	Community	14–17	15.0	1.4	54.0 (10.8)–63.7 (11.4); Subscales also reported
Morrison and Zetlin	(1992)	PACS	USA	60	50	At risk & community	15–18	n.a	n.a	50.9 (11.8)–83.3 (5.0)
Noor and Alwi	(2013)	PACS	Malaysia	197	61.9	Community	12–16	13.8	1.5	Mother 68.7 (11.1)
Ochoa et al.	(2007)	PACS	Spain	1068	53	Community	11–16	13.7	1.6
Ochoa et al.	(2021)	PACS	USA	456	52.9	Communityl	12–16	13.9	1.4	76.3 (10.1)
Ohannessian and Vannucci	(2020)	PACS	USA	1057	53	Community	n.a	16.2‡	0.8	Mother 67.1 (15.3); father 64.0 (16.2)
Ohannessian	(2012)	PACS	USA	683	57	Communitym	15–17‡	16.1‡	0.7	Mother 66.8 (13.9); father 65.3 (15.5)
Otero et al.	(2011)	PACS	Spain	198	n.a	(1)Clinical & (2)community	9–17	(1)15.5; (2)15.2	(1)1.7; (2)1.9	67.6 (13.2)–82.2 (9.7); subscales also reported
Pantaleao and Ohannessian	(2019)	PACS	USA	980	53	Communityn	n.a	16.2‡	0.8	Mother 66.8 (14.1); father 64.4 (15.5)
Park and Kim	(2012)	PACS	USA	166	45.8	Community	11–15	13.0	1.2	Mother 69.0 (13.4); father 64.9 (13.0)
Phillips-Salimi et al	(2014)	PACS	USA	70	38.6	At risk	11–19	14.8	1.7	71.6 (11.7)
Prado et al.	(2013)	PACS	USA	213	36.2	Community	n.a	13.8	0.8
Qu et al.	(2021)	PACS	China	842	47.9	Community	n.a	12.2	0.5	*Not interpretable
Reis and Heppner	(1993)	PACS	USA	31	100	Clinical & community	n.a	15.0	1.6	Clinical 57.9 (18.5); community 70.4 (18.5)
Rhee et al.	(2003)	PACS	USA	189	55.6	Community	13–18	15.5	1.2
Rishel et al.	(2010)	PACS	USA	518	70	Community	12–17	15.0	1.3	*Not interpretable
Ritchwood et al.	(2017)	PACS	USA	465	55.5	Community	10–14	12.6	1.4	*Not interpretable
Rosenthal et al.	(2001)	PACS	n.a	n.a	n.a	Community	8th–10th grade	n.a	n.a	*Not interpretable
Rosnati et al.	(2007)	PACS	Italy	276	51.4	Community	11–17	13.8	n.a	Mother 73.7 (13.3); father 71.9 (13.9)
Scabini et al.	(1999)	PACS	Italy	692	51.8	Community	n.a	n.a	n.a	56.0 (13.1)–79.3 (10.1)
Schuster et al.	(2013)	PACS	USA	1145	57.7	Community	15–19	16.9	n.a	*Not interpretable
Schwinn et al.	(2014)	PACS	USA	67	100	Community	10–12	11.9	0.9	*Not interpretable
Sears et al.	(2020)	PACS	Canada	259	52.9	Community	12–14	13.0	0.7	65.0 (11.3) -73.4 (11.4)
Shin et al.	(2010)	PACS	South Korea	178	52.8	Community	10–13	13.0	0.4	*Not interpretable
Simpson et al.	(2020)	PACS	USA	1034	55	Communityo	n.a	16.2	0.8	Mother 67.3 (16.3); father 63.7 (16.3)
Toombs et al.	(2018)	PACS	Canada	18	72	Community	13–17	n.a	n.a
Vannucci et al.	(2019)	PACS	USA	100	40	Community	13–17	15.1	1.0
Varela et al.	(2009)	PACS	USA, Mexico	217	n.a	Community	9–14	11.3	5.5	Open 35.8 (10.6)–41.1 (7.6)
Velazquez et al.	(2021)	PACS	USA	101	52	Community	n.a	14.4	1.9	54.0 (7.7)
Wang et al.	(2013)	PACS	Bahamas	913	n.a	Community	10–14	10.4	n.a	*Not interpretable
Wang et al.	(2019)	PACS	China	1969	45.6	Communityp	11–17	13–13.2	n.a	54.1 (9.2)–57.3 (10.1)
Wang et al.	(2020)	PACS	China	4565	43.4	Community	n.a	13.0	1.3	61.0 (11.2)–54.1 (9.2); subscales also reported
Weber et al.	(2019)	PACS	Sweden	23	65.2	At risk	12–20	16.2	1.9	63.4 (6.5)
White and Matawie	(2004)	PACS	Australia	218	72.5	Communityq	14–19	16.9	1.2	Mother 67.5 (14.5); father 63.1 (15.1)
White	(2000)	PACS	Australia	271	64.2	Community	14–19	16.8	2.8
Wu and Chao	(2011)	PACS	USA	634	48.9	Community	14–18	16.0	0.6
Xia et al.	(2004)	PACS	China	768	64	Community	12–19	16.2	2.5
Xiao et al.	(2011)	PACS	USA	336	42.6	Community	9–15	n.a	n.a
Yang et al.	(2007)	PACS	USA	817	56.5	Community	13–16	n.a	n.a	*Not interpretable
Yoon	(2000)	PACS	USA	241	n.a	Community	12–19	14.0	n.a
Young and Childs	(1994)	PACS	USA	171	73	(1)Clinical & (2)community	(1)14–18; (2)14–19	(1)16.1; (2)16.4	n.a	Clinical: mother 55.4 (15.5); father 51.9 (15.5)
Yu et al.	(2006)	PACS	Bahamas	752	54	Communityr	n.a	10.5	n.a
Zhou et al.	(2021)	PACS	China	620	60.2	Community	12–19	15.6	1.6	Open 31.2 (8.1); problem 25.6 (6.7)
Bandura et al.	(2011)	PACS†	Italy	142	45.1	Community	13–19	16.0	n.a	*Not interpretable
Berzonsky et al.	(2007)	PACS†	Netherlands	281	54.8	Community	n.a	13.3	0.5
Branje	(2008)	PACS†	Netherlands	30	100	Community	12–13	n.a	n.a	*Not interpretable
Ioffe et al.	(2020)	PACS†	USA	400	54	Community	11–14	12.5	1.0	Open: mother 38.5 (9.9); father 34.3 (9.8)
Lin et al.	(2021)	PACS†	China	1539	54.2	Community	n.a	15.8	0.5	*Not interpretable
Rodrigues et al.	(2020)	PACS†	USA	95	100	Community	13–18	15.4	0.1	*Not interpretable
Updegraff et al.	(2002)	PACS†	USA	143	52	Community	9–12	10.7	0.7	*Not interpretable
Van Dijk et al.	(2014)	PACS†	Netherlands	323	51.1	Community	12–15	13.3	0.5	*Not interpretable
Portugal and Alberto	(2019)	COMPA	Portugal	72	43.06	(1)At risk & (2)community	(1)12–16; (2)7–16	(1)11.4; (2)10.9	(1)2.8; (2)2.1
Kwok and Shek	(2010a)	FACS/ MACS	Hongkong	5557	46.9	Community	11–18	13.9	1.5
Kwok and Shek	(2010b)	FACS/ MACS	Hongkong	5557	46.9	Communitys	n.a	n.a	n.a	Mother 69.3 (13.9); father 60.5 (13.5)
Kwok and Shek	(2011)	FACS/ MACS	Hongkong	5557	46.9	Communityt	n.a	n.a	n.a
Yang et al.	(2013)	FCP	USA	163	53.4	Community	15–17	n.a	n.a
Carson et al.	(1999)	PACI (Bienvenu)	India	107	46.73	Community	12–16	13.7	0.7	83.5 (12.6)
Green and Vosler	(1992)	PACI (Bienvenu)	USA	39	28.2	At risk	12–19	15.4	1.5	80.4–84.4
Hill and Roberts	(2019)	PACI (Bienvenu)	USA	167	44.31	Community	11–19	n.a	n.a
Raimundi et al.	(2019)	PACI (Schmidt)	Argentina	476	n.a	Community	11–19	15.2	1.5	Open 23.3(6.2)–31.6(3.1); problems 11.5 (3.7)–20.9(6.1); restricted 18.5(5.6)–27.5(4.5)
Ying et al.	(2015)	PCCQ	China	3349	48.6	Community	12–15	n.a	n.a
Ying et al.	(2018)	PCCQ	China	437	45	Community	n.a	10.9	0.7	*Not interpretable
Ying et al.	(2019)	PCCQ	China	437	45	Communityu	n.a	10.9	0.7	*Not interpretable
Zhang et al.	(2019)	PCCS (Chi)	China	296	54.7	Community	n.a	13.1	1.1
Blanc et al.	(2021)	PCCS (Krohn)	Spain	360	58.7	Community	12–19	15.2	1.4	*Not interpretable
Davidson and Cardemil	(2009)	PCCS (Krohn)	USA	40	52.5	Community	10–14	12.2	1.6	22.0 (4.0)
Fite et al.	(2014)	PCCS (Loeber)	USA	289	0	Community	n.a	16.0	n.a	48.1 (8.6)
Schulte et al.	(2017)	PCCS (Loeber)	USA	102	50	At risk	n.a	9.7	2.5	36.9 (7.4)
Fjermestad et al.	(2020)	PCCS (McCarty)	Cambodia	52	44	At risk	8–21	12.7	2.7
Offrey abd Rinaldi	(2017)	PCCS (McCarty)	Canada	225	60	Community	n.a	12.7	n.a
Orm et al.	(2021)	PCCS (McCarty)	Norway	123	52	At riskv & communityw	8–16	11.0–11.5	2.0–2.5	27.9 (6.2)–34.3 (4.7)
Orm et al.	(2022)	PCCS (McCarty)	Norway	145	49.7	At riskx & community	8–16	11.5	2.2	Child communication 10.2 (3.1)–13.1 (2.2); parent communication 18.8 (3.6)–21.4 (2.8)
Fredriksen et al.	(2021)	PCCS† (McCarty)	Norway	107	54.6	At risk	8–16	11.5	2.1
Haukeland et al.	(2021)	PCCS† (McCarty)	Norway	100	50	At risky & community	8–16	11.5	2.2	*Not interpretable
Haukeland et al.	(2020)	PCCS† (McCarty)	Norway	99	54.5	At riskz	8–16	11.5	2.0
Fitzpatrick and Ritchie	(1994)	RFCP	USA	168	n.a	Community	7th–11th grade	n.a	n.a	*Not interpretable
O'Toole et al.	(2021)	RFCP	Ireland	47	n.a	At risk	8–18	13.2	2.8
Sillars et al.	(2005)	RFCP	USA	50	44	Community	11–14	n.a	n.a

fem. Female, PCC  parent–child communication

^†Only subscale used

^‡Value reported at T1

^§Same values for both subsamples. ‖First year middle school, not otherwise specified

*Not interpretable: means are provided but not comparable due to changes in scale or calculation

^aComprises samples of Cordova et al. (2014) and Prado et al. (2013)

^bSubsample of Wang et al. (2020)

^cSubsample of Finan et al. (2018)

^dSubsample of Ochoa et al. (2007)

^eSame sample as Hartos and Power (1997)

^fSubsample of Ochoa et al. (2007)

^gSame community sample as in Keim et al. (2017)

^hSame community sample as in Howard Sharp et al. (2020)

ⁱSubsample of Ochoa et al. (2007)

^jSubsample of Wang et al. (2020)

^kSubsample of Prado et al. (2013)

^lSubsample of Cordova et al. (2014)

^mSubsample of Ohanessian and Vanucci (2020)

ⁿSubsample of Ohanessian and Vanucci (2020)

^oSubsample of Ohanessian and Vanucci (2020)

^pSubsample of Wang et al. (2020)

^qSubsample of White (2000)

^rSubsample of Wang et al. (2013)

^sSame as Kwok (2010a)

^tSame as Kwok (2010a)

^uSame sample as Ying et al. (2018)

^vSubsample of Fredriksen et al. (2021)

^wSubsample of Orm et al. (2022)

^xSubsample of Fredriksen et al. (2021)

^ySubsample of Fredriksen et al. (2021)

^zSubsample of Fredriksen et al. (2021)