Table 2. Neurodevelopmental Outcomes by Case or Control Status.
| Neurodevelopmental testa | Cases | Controls | P value from mixed model |
|---|---|---|---|
| Academics | |||
| Reading composite, WRAT-4 (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 95 | 96 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 108.0 (96.0-117.0) | 103.0 (92.5-112.0) | .16 |
| Spelling, WRAT-4 (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 95 | 96 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 106.0 (95.0-116.0) | 102.0 (92.0-110.0) | .11 |
| Math computation, WRAT-4 (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 104 | 107 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 97.5 (88.0-108.0) | 100.0 (90.0-111.0) | .67 |
| Learning problems, Conners-3 Parent (<18 y)c | |||
| No. | 56 | 59 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 51.0 (42.0-68.0) | 53.0 (44.0-64.0) | .19 |
| Learning problems, Conners-3 Teacher (<18 y)c | |||
| No. | 30 | 43 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 49.0 (45.0-63.0) | 51.0 (43.0-67.0) | .26 |
| Intelligence | |||
| Full-Scale IQ All Ages Standard Score, WISC-V (<16 y) or WAIS-IV (≥16 y)b | |||
| No. | 104 | 107 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 99.0 (87.5-109.5) | 98.0 (83.0-108.0) | .37 |
| Verbal Comprehension Index All Ages Standard Score, WISC-V (<16 y) or WAIS-IV (≥16 y)b | |||
| No. | 108 | 109 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 103.0 (95.5-114.0) | 100.0 (89.0-116.0) | .28 |
| Fluid Reasoning Index, WISC-V (<16 y)b | |||
| No. | 63 | 63 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 100.0 (85.0-115.0) | 97.0 (85.0-106.0) | .46 |
| Perceptual Reasoning Index, WAIS-IV (≥16 y)b | |||
| No. | 43 | 44 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 98.0 (88.0-105.0) | 98.0 (88.0-113.0) | .80 |
| Executive function | |||
| Global Executive Composite, BRIEF-2 Parent (<18 y)c | |||
| No. | 69 | 70 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 53.0 (46.0-63.0) | 55.0 (45.0-63.0) | .98 |
| Global Executive Composite, BRIEF-2 Teacher (<18 y)c | |||
| No. | 41 | 49 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 50.0 (46.0-63.0) | 52.0 (47.0-65.0) | .56 |
| Tower Total Achievement Score, D-KEFS (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 103 | 106 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 9.0 (8.0-11.0) | 10.0 (8.0-11.0) | .74 |
| Memory | |||
| Delayed recall: story memory recallb | |||
| No. | 108 | 110 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 11.0 (9.0-12.0) | 10.0 (9.0-12.0) | .21 |
| Delayed recall: picture memory recognitionb | |||
| No. | 104 | 107 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 10.0 (7.5-12.0) | 9.0 (8.0-12.0) | .98 |
| Delayed recall: story recognitionb | |||
| No. | 96 | 97 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 11.0 (9.0-13.0) | 11.0 (10.0-13.0) | .80 |
| Social responsiveness | |||
| Positive for ASD, ADOS-2 (≥8 y)b | |||
| No, No. (%) | 4 (36.4) | 6 (54.5) | NA |
| Yes, No. (%) | 7 (63.6) | 5 (45.5) | NA |
| SRS-2 total score (≥8 y)c | |||
| No. | 99 | 100 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 48.0 (42.0-56.0) | 46.5 (42.0-53.5) | .17 |
| Language deficits | |||
| Listening comprehension, WIAT-III (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 93 | 94 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 105.0 (96.0-115.0) | 105.0 (95.0-116.0) | .55 |
| Oral expression, WIAT-III (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 94 | 93 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 106.0 (94.0-114.0) | 103.0 (93.0-114.0) | >.99 |
| Fine motor skills | |||
| VMI-6 (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 104 | 106 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 85.0 (75.0-98.0) | 87.5 (76.0-96.0) | .91 |
| Adaptive functioning | |||
| Adaptive behavior composite, Vineland-3 (≥8 y)b | |||
| No. | 78 | 82 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 103.0 (92.0-112.0) | 104.0 (92.0-110.0) | .97 |
| Anxiety and depression | |||
| T-score, MASC-2 (<18 y)c | |||
| No. | 51 | 56 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 51.0 (46.0-61.0) | 55.0 (47.5-60.0) | .91 |
| T-score, CDI-2 (<18 y)c | |||
| No. | 53 | 59 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 47.0 (42.0-54.0) | 50.0 (43.0-59.0) | .94 |
| Total raw score, BAI (≥18 y)c | |||
| No. | 37 | 35 | |
| Score, median (IQR) | 8.0 (5.0-17.0) | 7.0 (2.0-10.0) | .14 |
| Total raw score, BDI-II (≥18 y)c | |||
| No. | 37 | 35 | NA |
| Score, median (IQR) | 5.0 (3.0-15.0) | 6.0 (3.0-10.0) | .20 |
Abbreviations: ADOS-2, Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition; ASD, autism spectrum disorder; BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory; BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory, Second Edition; BRIEF-2, Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition; CDI-2, Children’s Depression Index, Second Edition; D-KEFS, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System; MASC-2, Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, Second Edition; NA, not applicable; SRS-2, Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition; Vineland-3, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Third Edition; VMI-6, Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration Test, Sixth Edition; WAIS-IV, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition; WIAT-III, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Third Edition; WISC-V, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition; WRAT-4, Wide Range Achievement Test, Fourth Edition.
The normative mean score is 100, and the SD is 15 for all tests, with these exceptions: BRIEF-226; CDI-2; Conners’ Scales; MASC-2 (mean [SD], 50 [10]); D-KEFS (mean [SD], 10 [3])27; SRS-2 (reports T score ≥76 for severe, 66-75 for moderate, 60-65 for mild, and <60 for typical symptoms)28; and BAI and BDI-II (score, 30-63 for severe, 17-29 for moderate, 10-16 for mild, and 0-9 for minimal symptoms).29,30
A lower score indicates more impairment.
A higher score indicates more impairment.