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. 2023 Jan 3;91(1):245–261. doi: 10.3233/JAD-220764

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© 2023 – The authors. Published by IOS Press

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Fig. 4 — In vitro PUFA effects on biophysical and immunological functions of AD patients’ macrophages (macrophages were obtained before in vivo supplementation): A) Oxidative stress. Omega-3 treatment decreased oxidative stress induced by Aβ. Cells stained for cytoplasmic superoxide (red: reactive oxygen species, blue: nuclei); B) Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Omega-3 stimulation increased MMP in macrophages. Cells stained with Mito Tracker Red CMXRos (red: MMP, green: FAM-Aβ, blue: nuclei); C) M1/M2 phenotype. Omega-3 stimulation changed inflammatory M1 phenotype to a pro-resolution M1/M2 phenotype. Note decreased inflammatory CD80 (red) and increased pro-resolution CD163 (red) markers following omega-3 stimulation; D) Aβ phagocytosis. Omega-3 stimulation increased phagocytosis of Aβ (green: FAM-Aβ, blue: nuclei).