Table 2.
The pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory characteristics of gut microbiota changed in MS.
| - | Gut microbiota | Functions | Sample sources | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pro-inflammatory | Bacteroides fragilis | Induce the production of inflammatory cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-2. | PBMC derived from healthy individuals stimulated by certain bacteria | [147] |
| - | Ruminococcus gnavus | Metabolize sialic acids and degrade mucin to promote proinflammatory response. | Ruminococcus gnavus isolated from the fecal microbiota of a healthy human adult | [148] |
| - | Akkermansia | Promote the expansion of proinflammatory cytokines. Induce differentiation of IFN-γ-producing Th1 cells. |
Exposing PBMCs from healthy donors to bacterial extracts from MS patients. | [34, 64, 74] |
| - | Acinetobacter | Suppress the differentiation of Treg cells and induce differentiation of IFN-γ-producing Th1 cells | Exposing PBMCs from healthy donors to bacterial extracts from MS patients. | [74] |
| Anti-inflammatory | Parabacteroides | Increase the percentage of CD4+CD25+IL-10+ FoxP3+ Treg cells. | Exposing PBMCs from healthy donors to bacterial extracts from MS patients. | [74] |
| - | Prevotella histicola | Induce CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells, tolerogenic dendritic cells and suppressive macrophage. Inhibit the myelin antigen-specific T cells response and decreased the level of IL-17 and IFN-γ in the periphery and CNS. |
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in a human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II transgenic mouse model. | [71] |
| - | - | Induce CD4+FoxP3+ Treg cells in the GALT . Reduce the level of Th1 and Th17 cells, and activation of microglia and astrocytes in CNS. |
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in a human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II transgenic mouse model. | [149, 150] |
| - | Bacteroides fragilis | Promote the convention of CD4+ T cells into Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells and inducing the production of IL-10 through the modulation of PSA. | Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model induced by PLP. | [70] |
| - | Lactobacillus | Induce the production of SCFAs. | An inoculum prepared from human feces | [151] |