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. 2023 Jan 30;13:1634. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-28831-6

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Theoretical representation of components of excess mortality in the COVID-19 pandemic. Excess mortality due to COVID-19 results in the addition of both direct (reported and not reported COVID-attributed deaths) and indirect mortality (due to the indirect effects of the pandemic on the health care system and on people’s behaviour), and the subtraction of avoided deaths (due to social restrictions).