Table 1.
Exosomes in pathogen response.
| Infections | Sources | Major contents | Effects | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Viral | CD4+ T cells | Nef, the HIV protein | inhibits the generation of CD4+ exosomes, induces the death of CD4+ T cells | (21, 22, 24–26) |
| megakaryocytes and platelets | C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) | increase the susceptibility of 15 CXCR4-null cells to X4-HIV infection | (28) | |
| HIV-infected cells | viral nucleic acids | promote infection by delivering viral 16 nucleic acids to the uninfected cells | (29, 30) | |
| HIV-infected cells | apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic subunit 3G | suppress viral infection | (31) | |
| HIV-infected cells | cyclic guanosine monophosphate–4 adenosine monophosphate (cGAMP) | trigger an antiviral response via innate immune 5 responses and interferon upregulation | (32, 33) | |
| macrophages | miRNA-88 and 6 miRNA-99 | activate the immune response against HIV via tumor necrosis factor-alpha | (34) | |
| SARS-CoV was cultured in alveolar epithelial type II cells, | viral particles | immune system evasion | (36, 37) | |
| SARS-CoV-infected Endothelial Progenitor Cells | angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) | susceptible to virus docking | (38) | |
| SARS-CoV-infected cells | ACE2 | blocked the binding of viral spike (S) protein RBD to ACE2+ cells | (39) | |
| Bacterial | Staphylococcus aureus | bacterial pore-forming molecule, α-toxin | promote additional infection | (40) |
| Bacillus anthracis-infected cells | lethal anthrax toxin | long-term and exosome-mediated long-distance infection | (41) | |
| methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | A disintegrin 16 and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 10 (ADAM10) | bind the toxin to improve host survival | (42) | |
| Protozoan | Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cells | Unknown | communicate with parasites and also promotes differentiation into sexual forms | (43) |
| Plasmodium yoelii-infected reticulocytes | parasite protein | induce antigen presentation | (44) | |
| Leishmania donovani | Unknown | induce interleukin (IL)-8 secretion from macrophages | (45) | |
| Trypanosoma cruzi | Unknown | immune modulation and virulence | (46) | |
| Leishmania mexicana-treated macrophages | Unknown | upregulation of adenosine receptor 2a (Adora2a) on macrophages | (46, 47) | |
| Trypanosoma bruceirhodesiense | serum resistance-associated proteins | to evade innate immunity | (48) | |
| Culturing the intestinal epithelial cells with Cryptosporidium parvum | synaptosome-associated protein 23 (SNAP23)- | activates TLR4 signaling, leading to an upregulation of exosome secretion | (48) |