Table 5. Examples of FDA-Approved Medical Devices Functioning Based on Bioimpedance.

bioimpedance measurement mode	clinical application	device name	FDA approval year	specification
impedance plethysmography	arterial and venous vascular diagnosis	VasoScreen 5000 by Sonicaid Inc.	1985
	cardiac hemodynamic monitoring for the management of heart failure	BioZ thoracic impedance plethysmograph by SonoSite136	1997	current: 1.5 mAeff
				frequency: 85 kHz
	noninvasive thoracic impedance plethysmography	IQ system cardiac output monitor by Renaissance Technology136,137	1998	current: 4 mA
				frequency: 100 kHz
	fluid status monitoring	ZOE by NonInvasive Medical Technologies LLC138	2004	detect changes < 2 Ω
	noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring	Cheetah NICOM system by Cheetah Medical Inc.	2008
	noninvasive measurement of cardiac output and its derivative	NICaS by NI-Medical139	2004	current: 1.4 mA
				frequency: 32 kHz
	lymphedema and fluid management: to detect edema resulting from extracellular fluid complications	L-Dex U400 and SOZO by ImpediMed106,140	2007 and 2018	frequencies: 3–1000 kHz (256 data points)
	monitoring distribution and changes of cerebral fluids for identification of brain pathologies	Visor by Cerebrotech Medical Systems	2018	frequencies: 30–310 MHz
electrical impedance tomography	mammography	T-Scan 2000 by TransScan Medical141	2000	voltage: 1–2.5 V
				frequencies: 0.1–100 kHz
	provides information on the regional distribution of ventilation	ENLIGHT 1810 by Timpel S/A142	2018
catheter-based bioimpedance monitoring	creation of 3-D cardiac models of the heart’s electrical activity	FlexAbility ablation catheter, sensor enabled by Abbott143	2017
	monitoring the effect of energy delivered during cardiac ablation procedures	DirectSense technology by Boston Scientific144	2020
bioimpedance spectroscopy	early detection of melanoma	Nevisense by SciBase Nevisense system128	2017	frequencies: 0.001–2.5 MHz