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Mechanisms of EVs applied in BTE to repair critical-size bone defects. The mechanisms of EVs in repairing critical-size bone defects are mainly attributed to the promotion of osteogenic differentiation of stromal cells while inhibiting the differentiation of osteoclasts. In addition, they also promote angiogenesis and modulate inflammatory responses to provide a suitable environment for bone regeneration. EVs: extracellular vesicles.
