. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Jan 31.

Published in final edited form as: Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2022 May-Jun;30(3):163–180. doi: 10.1097/HRP.0000000000000337

Table 1.

Study Measures and Significant Results

Study	Defining variables (measures)	Outcome variables			Prepubertal depression prevalence	Adult depression prevalence	Measures of association between prepubertal depression/internalizing symptoms and adult outcomes	Covariates
Study	Defining variables (measures)	Depression	Other psychiatric	Medical & others	Prepubertal depression prevalence	Adult depression prevalence		Covariates
Wickramaratne et al. (2000)²⁰	MDD (K-SADS, DSM-III-R)	MDD (SADS-LA, DSM-III-R)			MDD: 10.7%	MDD childhood-onset group: 38.9% MDD total sample: 29.8%	MDD after age 20: adjusted RR = NS MDD after age 25: adjusted RR = 4.01; 95% CI, 1.07–15.1; p < .05	Sex, age at last interview
Canals et al. (2002)²¹	Depressive symptoms (CDI, CDRS-R, DSM-III-R)	MDD, dysthymia, depressive disorders (SCAN, ICD-10)	Adjustment disorders (SCAN, ICD-10)		NR	MDE: 3.4% Dysthymia: 6.5 % NOS depressive disorder: 0.7%	MDE and dysthymia: all associations NS MDE, dysthymia, depressive disorder NOS, and adjustment disorder with depressive reaction: Females age 11: OR = 1.21; p = .01	NR
Haavisto et al. (2004)²²	Depressive symptoms (CDI)	Depressive symptoms (BDI)			Depressive symptoms: 15.7%	NR	Unadjusted: Cumulative OR: 3.0; 95% CI, 2.2–4.1; p < .001 Adjusted: Cumulative OR model 1: 2.6; 95% CI, 1.8–3.6; p < .00 Cumulative OR model 2: 2.4; 95% CI, 1.6–3.7; p < .001	Model 1, age 8 variables: family structure, biological parent vs. others, somatic complaints, Rutter A2 parent and B2 teacher scales total scores, parents’ and teachers’ consideration of child psychiatric treatment Model 2, age 18: variables significant in prior analyses except CDI score, adaptive functioning, number of friends, somatic problems, alcohol use, and illicit substance use frequency
Sourander et al. (2005)¹⁷	Internalizing problems (Rutter A2 parent and B2 teacher scales) Depressive symptoms (CDI)	Depressive disorder (ICD-10 diagnosis at military call-up health examination)	SUDs, anxiety disorder (ICD-10 diagnosis at military call-up health examination)		NR	Depressive disorder: 1.7%	Unadjusted OR: Depression Parent-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1–1.8; p < .05 Teacher-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1–1.7; p < .05 CDI score: OR = 1.5; 95% CI, 1.2–1.9; p < .01 Anxiety Parent-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.7; 95% CI, 1.4–2.0; p < .001 Teacher-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1–1.7; p < .01; CDI score: OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.2–1.8, p < .001 Substance use Parent-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.6; 95% CI, 1.3–2.1; p < .001 Teacher-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.7; 95% CI, 1.4–2.1; p < .001; CDI score: OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1–1.7; p < .01 Adjusted OR: Depression CDI score: OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.2–1.8; p < .001 Anxiety Parent-rated emotional problems: OR = 1.3; 95% CI, 1.04–1.7; p < .05	Family background nonintact family; parent-rated conduct and emotional problems; teacher-rated psychological problems, poor school performance, conduct problems, and emotional problems; CDI score; self-report psychosomatic problems score
Clark et al. (2007)²³	Internalizing problems (BSAG)	Depressive episode (CIS-R, ICD-10)	GAD, any GAD (CIS-R, ICD-10)		Internalizing problems Age 7: 11.3% Age 11: 10.2%	Depression: 2.2% (1.6% male; 2.8% female)	Adjusted model 1: Depressive episode case, age 7: OR = 2.12; 95% CI, 1.34–3.36; p < .001 Borderline, age 11: OR = 1.65; 95% CI, 1.13–2.42; p < .01; case, age 11: OR = 2.53; 95% CI, 1.58–4.05; p < .001 GAD case, age 7: OR = 2.08; 95% CI, 1.43–3.04; p < .001 Any GAD + comorbid disorder Borderline, age 7: OR = 1.40; 95% CI, 1.07–1.83; p < .05; case, age 7: OR = 2.07; 95% CI, 1.47–2.93; p < .001; case, age 11: OR = 1.68; 95% CI, 1.16–2.45; p < .01 Adjusted model 2: Depressive episode case, age 7: OR = 1.91; 95% CI, 1.20–3.04; p < .01; borderline, age 11: OR = 1.49; 95% CI, 1.01–2.19; p < .05; case, age 11: OR = 2.24; 95% CI, 1.40–3.60; p < .001 GAD case, age 7: OR = 1.91; 95% CI, 1.31–2.79; p < .001 Any GAD + comorbid disorder Borderline, age 7: OR = 1.31; 95% CI, 1.01–1.73; p < .05; case, age 7: OR = 1.90; 95% CI, 1.34–2.68; p < .001; case, age 11: OR = 1.51; 95% CI, 1.03–2.20; p < .05	Model 1: Household tenure at age 7 years and sex Model 2: Household tenure at age 7 years, sex, and malaise at age 23 years
Stansfeld et al. (2008)²⁴	Internalizing problems (BSAG)			Job demands, job decision latitude, job insecurity, job strain, job social support (SRQ derived from Whitehall II study)	NR	Depressive disorder: 3.7%	High job demands: RR = 0.80; 95% CI, 0.71–0.91; p < .001 Low decision latitude: RR = 1.51; 95% CI, 1.31–1.74; p < .001 Mid decision latitude: RR = 1.26; 95% CI, 1.09–1.46; p < .001 Low social support: RR = 1.20; 95% CI, 1.05–1.38; p < .01 Job Demands Scale: β = −0.048; p < .001 Job Latitude Scale: β = −0.301; p < .001 Job Insecurity Scale: β = −0.008; p < .001	Sex, marital status at 45 years, housing tenure at 45 years, long-standing illness at 42 years, qualifications at 33 years, and any RCIS diagnosis at 45 years
Multimaki et al. (2008)²⁵	Internalizing problems (Rutter A2 parent and B2 teacher scales) Depressive symptoms (CDI)			Permanent or temporary release from military service (military register)	Parent-rated emotional problems: 10.3% Teacher-rated emotional problems: 6.5%	NR	Unadjusted: Permanent release from military service Teacher-rated emotional problems: OR = 3.8; 95% CI, 2.3–6.4 Temporary release from military service Teacher-rated emotional problems: OR = 2.3; 95% CI, 1.3–3.8 Depressive symptoms: OR = 2.6; 95% CI, 1.7–3.9 Adjusted: Permanent release from military service Teacher-rated emotional problems: OR = 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1–4.5; p < .05 Temporary release from military service Depressive symptoms: OR = 2.1; 95% CI, 1.2–3.7; p < .05	Family background, family structure nonintact family, parent report of child somatic health problems, parent and teacher reports of having considered psychological evaluation treatment for child, Rutter A2 conduct and hyperkinetic problems, Rutter B2 conduct, hyperkinetic, and emotional problems, teacher-reported psychological problems, school performance, CDI score, psychosomatic problems scale score
Niemela et al. (2009)²⁶	Internalizing problems (Rutter A2 parent and B2 teacher scales) Depressive symptoms (CDI)			Smoking frequency in past 6 months (self-report)	NR	NR	Adjusted model 1: Occasional smoking Teacher-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.9; 95% CI, 0.8–0.98; p = .028 Moderate smoking Teacher-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.9; 95% CI, 0.8–0.97; p = .028 Depressive symptoms: OR = 1.2; 95% CI, 1.1–1.4; p < .001 Heavy smoking Depressive symptoms: OR = 1.4; 95% CI, 1.2–1.6; p < .001 Adjusted Model 2: Occasional smoking Teacher-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.8; 95% CI, 0.7–0.9; p = .026 Moderate smoking Teacher-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.8; 95% CI, 0.7–0.9; p = .026 Depressive symptoms: OR = 1.2; 95% CI, 1.02–1.3; p = .005 Heavy smoking Teacher-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.8; 95% CI, 0.6–0.9; p = .026 Depressive symptoms: OR = 1.2; 95% CI, 1.14–1.4; p = .005 Unadjusted Variables: Moderate smoking High parent-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.5; 95% CI, 0.3–0.9; p = .007 High depressive symptoms among offspring of fathers with low education level: OR = 7.1; 95% CI, 1.5–34.5; p = .027 Heavy smoking High parent-reported emotional problems: OR = 0.5; 95% CI, 0.3–0.8; p = .007 High depressive symptoms among offspring of fathers with low education level: OR = 12.4; 95% CI, 1.5–102.0; p = .027	Model 1 adjusted for family structure, and mother’s and father’s education levels Model 2 adjusted for maternal and paternal education levels, family structure, school performance, parent and teacher reports of conduct, hyperactive and emotional symptoms, child self-reported depressive symptoms
Copeland et al. (2009)²⁸	MDD, dysthymia, depressive disorder not otherwise specified (CAPA, DSM-IV)	MDD, dysthymia (YAPA, DSM-IV)	GAD, panic disorder without agoraphobia, agoraphobia without panic, SUD (YAPA, DSM-IV)		NR	NR	Unadjusted: GAD: OR = 3.7; 95% CI, 1.0–13.7; p < .05 Adjusted: GAD: OR = 2.7; 95% CI, 1.0–7.5; p < .05 Panic disorder: OR = 4.3; 95% CI, 1.2–15.5; p < .05	Other childhood psychiatric disorders, including overanxious disorder, separation anxiety disorder, GAD, ADHD, conduct disorder, and ODD
Bureau et al. (2009)²⁹	Depressive symptoms (DDPCA)	Depressive symptoms (CES-D)			NR	NR	Model 1: Unstandardized beta = 9.28; SE = 3.35; p = .01 Model 2: Unstandardized beta = 8.27; SE = 3.41; p = .02	Model 1: gender and clinical risk status Model 2: gender, maternal depressive symptoms in infancy and at age 19
Kosterman et al. (2009)³⁰	Depressive symptoms (CBCL teacher report)	Depressive episode (DIS, DSM-III-R)			NR	Depressive episode: 20%	OR = NS	Gender, ethnicity, and childhood poverty
McClure et al. (2012)³¹	Depressive symptoms (CDI)			BMI (self-reported height and weight)	Tested positive on the CDI for depression: 5.1%	NR	Pearson’s correlation: r = 0.11; p < .05 Adjusted OR: NS	Assignment to LIFT intervention group, overweight at age 10 and 14, family household income in 5th grade, parental smoking, family communication age 14, CDI score at age 14, conduct disorder symptoms at ages 10 and 14, CBCL and Over/Covert Antisocial Questionnaire, ADHD symptoms at ages 10 and 14, CBCL and Over/Covert Antisocial Questionnaire, number of biological children
Fischer et al. (2012)³⁵	Internalizing problems (modified short-form CBCL)		Nicotine dependence, self-reported tobacco smoking frequency (YASR, CIDI-Auto, DSM-IV)		Notable internalizing psychopathology: 11%	NR	All associations: NS	Model 1 : aggression and attention problems at age 5 Model 2: aggression and attention problems at age 5, family poverty, maternal smoking, depression and anxiety, marital changes by age 14
Korczak et al. (2014)³²	MDE (SDI, DSM-III-R)			BMI (self-reported weight and height)	MDD: 2.9%	NR	Unadjusted: Mean adult BMI with vs. without childhood MDD: 27.3 kg/m2 (SD = 6.4) vs. 25 kg/m2 (SD 4.8); p = .02 Adjusted: Boys only: β coefficient = 0.10; p = .022 Adult BMI of boys with vs. without childhood MDD: 28.6 kg/m2 vs. 25.5 kg/m2; p < .05	Age, sex, SES, parental psychiatric illness, and adult depression
Goldman-Mellor et al. (2014)³³	Internalizing problems (Rutter A2 parent and B2 teacher scales)		Insomnia diagnosis (interview)		NR	16.3%	Unadjusted: RR = 1.21; 95% CI, 1.08–1.36; p = .001 Adjusted: RR = 1.14; 95% CI, 1.01–1.28; p = .031	Sex, family social class, depression, GAD, PTSD, any fear or phobia, alcohol dependence, cannabis dependence, or hard drug dependence at age 38
Zohsel et al. (2016)³⁴	Internalizing problems (MEI, DSM-IV)		Problematic cannabis use, cannabis abuse or dependence (SCID-I, DSM-IV SDS)		NR	NR	All associations: OR = NS	Model 1: sex, psychosocial adversity Model 2: Sex, psychosocial adversity, comorbid CD/ODD symptoms, attention problems, hyperactivity/impulsivity

ADHD, attention-deficif/hyperactivity disorder; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; BSAG, Bristol Social Adjustment Guide; CAPA, Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist; CDI, Children’s Depression Inventory; CDRS-R, Children’s Depression Rating Scale–Revised; CES-D, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; CI, confidence interval; CIDI-Auto, Composite International Diagnostic Interview; CIS-R, Clinical Interview Schedule–Revised; DDPCA, Dimensions of Depression Profile for Children and Adolescents; DE, depressive episode; DIS, Diagnostic Interview Schedule; DSM, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; GAD, generalized anxiety disorder; ICD, International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems; K-SADS, Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia in School-Age Children; MDD, major depressive disorder; MDE, major depressive episode; MEI, Mannheim Parent Interview; NR, not reported; NS, not significant; ODD, oppositional defiant disorder; OR, odds ratio; RCIS, Revised Clinical Interview Schedule; RR, risk ratio; SADS-LA, Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia—Lifetime Version modified for the study of anxiety disorders; SCAN, Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry; SCID-I, Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SD, standard deviation; SDI, Survey Diagnostic Instrument; SDS, Severity of Dependence Scale; SE, standard error; SES, socioeconomic status; SUD, substance use disorder; YAPA, Young Adult Psychiatric Assessment; YASR, Young Adult Self Report.