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. 2023 Jan 31;11:17. doi: 10.1186/s40168-022-01452-3

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 9 — Effect of butyrate on Mel improved memory impairment in sleep-deprived mice. A Schematic illustration of experimental design. B Track plot of spatial memory test (with hidden platform). C Latency to reach the platform (n = 8). D Path length to reach the platform (n = 8). E Path efficiency to reach the platform (n = 8). F Track plot of spatial memory test (without hidden platform). G Number of entries into the target zone (n = 8). H Time spent in the target zone (n = 8). I Images of the immunohistochemical microglia in the different experimental groups. The immunohistochemical results were processed using ImageJ. Bar = 50 μm. J–L IOD of Iba1-positive cells in the hippocampal cornu ammonis (CA)1, CA3, and dentate gyrus (DG) regions (n = 6). M–P The levels of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-4, and IL-10) in the hippocampus (n = 5). Q–T Relative protein levels of HDAC3, p-IκB, p-P65, and cleaved caspase-3 in the hippocampus (n = 6). CON: control group, SD: sleep deprivation group, SD + Mel: SD + melatonin (20 mg/kg) group, SD + Abs: SD + antibiotics group, SD + Abs + Mel: SD + antibiotics + Mel group, SD + Abs + Butyrate: SD + antibiotics + Butyrate (40 mM) group. The data represent the mean ± SEM, p < 0.05 was set as the threshold for significance by one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc comparisons using Tukey’s test for multiple groups’ comparisons, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001