Fig. 1. Evolutionary analyses of social organization and longevity in 974 mammalian species.

a Phylogenetic distribution of social organization, adult body mass, and longevity (n = 974). The inner circle represents a species’ social organization: solitary (blue), pair-living (orange), and group-living (red). The middle layer indicates the absolute adult body mass (g) and the outer layer indicates the longevity (years); both variables were log₁₀ transformed. Colors of shadings distinguish different mammals’ orders. b Difference in absolute longevity and c relative longevity (residuals of longevity, which was adjusted for body mass) across the three social organization states (solitary: n = 491, pair-living: n = 65, group-living: n = 368). We accounted for the effects of phylogenetic non-independence among species using a Phylogenetic ANOVA. Two-sided and Hommel method adjust P values are reported. The white dot represents the median in two violin plots, and the black box represents interquartile ranges (IQRs), i.e., the 25th and 75th percentiles. The whiskers extend up to the largest value within 1.5-fold IQR. Species numbers (n) are indicated in each social organization, respectively. Correlated evolution analysis for absolute short-lived (cyan) or long-lived state (purple): d non-solitary or solitary (blue); e non-pair-living or pair-living (orange); f non-group-living or group-living (red). d and f demonstrate correlated evolution. The number of species used in the analyses was n = 974. Arrows depict the likelihood of a transition between states, and their thickness corresponds to the magnitude of the various rates. Numbers indicate the transition rate across ten independent runs, and data are presented as mean ± SD. Silhouette images of animals are from PhyloPic database [http://phylopic.org/]. Source data are provided as a Source data file.