2. Summary of key characteristics of included studies.
| Study ID | Intervention/modality | Setting | Frequency (per week) | Duration (weeks) | Total number of sessions | Session length (minutes) |
MMSE Mean (SD) |
Follow‐up? |
Age Mean (SD) |
Relevant sample size intervention/control |
| Ali 2021 | Individual iCST adapted from ‘Making a Difference’ manuals delivered by paid staff or family/friends | Mixed community/supported housing/residential care, UK | 2 | 20 | 40 | 30 | N/A | None | 60.4 (8.2) | 20/20 |
| Alvares‐Pereira 2021 | CST groups using Portugese version of 'Making a Difference' manual | Mixed day‐centre/residential settings, Portugal | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | N/A | None | 83.6 (7.6) | 55/50 |
| Baldelli 1993 | RO group sessions | Institution, Italy | 3 | 12 | 36 | 60 | 20.6 (4.9) | 3‐month | 84.5 (6.4) | 13/10 |
| Baldelli 2002 | RO group sessions | Nursing home, Italy | 5 | 4 | 20 | 60 | 20.7 (3.0) | None | 80.0 (7.4) | 71 /16 |
| Bottino 2005 | ‘Cognitive rehabilitation’ group sessions/carer support group | Outpatients, Brazil | 1 | 20 | 20 | 90 | 22.3 (3.6) | None | 73.7 (6.6) | 6/7 |
| Breuil 1994 | Cognitive stimulation groups | Outpatients, France | 2 | 5 | 10 | 60 | 21.5 | None | 77.1 (7.1) | 29/27 |
| Buschert 2011 | Cognitive stimulation groups | Outpatients, all on AChEIs/memantine, Germany | 1 | 26 | 20 | 120 | 24.9 (1.6) | None | 75.9 (8.1) | 8/7 |
| Capotosto 2017 | CST groups using ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Residential homes, Italy | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 18.2 (3.4) | None | 87.4 (5.4) | 20/19 |
| Carbone 2021 | CST groups using Italian version of 'Making a Difference' manual | Residential homes and day‐centres, Italy | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 20.1 (4.0) | 3‐month follow‐up | 83.6 (8.1) | 123/102 |
| Chapman 2004 | Cognitive‐communication stimulation groups | Outpatients – all on donepezil, USA | 1 | 8 | 8 | 90 | 20.9 (3.6) | 6‐month and 10‐month follow‐up | 76.4 (7.9) | 26/28 |
| Cheung 2019 | Cognitive stimulating play intervention groups | 2 daycare centres, Hong Kong | 1 | 8 | 8 | 45‐60 | (MoCA 7.9 (4.4)) | None | 83.2 (7.2) | 18/12 |
| Coen 2011 | CST Groups using ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Long‐term care, nursing home, Ireland | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 16.9 (5.0) | None | 79.8 (5.6) | 14/13 |
| Cove 2014 | CST Groups using ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Community, UK | 1 | 14 | 14 | 45 | 22.8 (3.4) | None | 77.3 (7.0) | 24/23 |
| Gibbor 2020b | Individual iCST adapted from ‘Making a Difference’ manuals delivered by researchers | Care homes, UK | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 21.7 (3.5) | None | 81.9 (10.3) | 17/16 |
| Graessel 2011 | ‘MAKS’ groups | Nursing homes, Germany | 6 | 52 | 300 | 120 | 14.6 (5.4) | 10‐month follow‐up | 85.1 (5.1) | 71/68 (6 months) 50/46 (12 months) |
| Juarez‐Cedillo 2020 | 'SADEM' cognitive stimulation groups | Outpatients, Mexico | 2 | 48 | 96 | 90 | 22.6 (0.9) | 12‐month follow‐up | 77.7 (8.2) | 39/28 |
| Justo‐Henriques 2022 | Home‐based individual cognitive stimulation delivered by clinical psychologist | Community, Portugal | 1 | 47 | 47 | 45 | 23.2 (3.2) | None | 78.9 (7.5) | 30/29 |
| Kim 2016 | Multi‐domain cognitive stimulation groups | Community – all receiving pharmacotherapy, South Korea | 5 | 26 | 130 | 60 | 18.0 (5.8) | None | 78.5 (1.5) | 32/21 |
| Leroi 2019 | Individual cognitive stimulation delivered by informal carers (CST‐PD) | Community, UK | 2‐3 | 12 | 24‐36 | 30 | N/A | None | Median 75 (range 55‐90) | 31 /30 |
| Lin 2018 | Cognitive stimulation groups | Long‐term care institutions, Taiwan | 1 | 10 | 10 | 50 | 14.9 (3.7) | 3‐month follow‐up | 79.5 (7.7) | 30/32 |
| Lok 2020 | RAM‐based CST groups (using ‘Making a Difference’ themes and structure) | Community ‐ all receiving AChEIs, Turkey | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 16.9 (4.3) | None | Not stated | 30/30 |
| Lopez 2020 | Cognitive stimulation groups | Community (daycare centre) ‐ all receiving AChEIs, Spain | 3 | 26 | 78 | 60 | 17.9 (3.9) | None | 81.9 (5.5) | 10/10 |
| Maci 2012 | Cognitive stimulation and physical activity groups | Community (gymnasium) ‐ all receiving AChEIs/memantine/anti‐depressants, Italy | 5 | 12 | 60 | 120 | 17.8 (2.8) | None | 72.6 (9.5) | 7/7 |
| Mapelli 2013 | Cognitive stimulation groups | Nursing home, Italy | 5 | 8 | 40 | 60 | 19.5 (3.4) | None | 83.7 (4.6) | 10/10 |
| Marinho 2021 | CST groups using Brazilian version of 'Making a Difference' manual | Outpatients ‐ all receiving AChEIs, Brazil | 2 (but both sessions on same day) | 7 | 14 | 45 | N/A | None | 77.8 (8.4) | 23/24 |
| Middelstädt 2016 | NEUROvitalis senseful cognitive stimulation groups | Nursing homes, Germany | 2 | 8 | 16 | 60 | 16.9 (4.5) | 6‐week follow‐up | 86.4 (4.5) | 36/35 |
| Onder 2005 | Individual reality orientation delivered by family carers | Community – all on donepezil, Italy | 3 | 25 | 75 | 30 | 20.1 (3.1) | None | 75.8 (7.1) | 79/77 |
| Orgeta 2015 | Individual cognitive stimulation delivered by informal carers; ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Community, UK | 3 | 25 | 75 | 30 | 21.2 (4.3) | None | 78.2 (7.5) | 180/176 |
| Orrell 2014 | Maintenance cognitive stimulation groups; ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Care homes and community, UK | 1 | 24 | 24 | 45 | 17.8 (5.5) | None | 83.1 (7.6) | 123/113 |
| Paddick 2017 | Cognitive stimulation groups using adapted ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Community, Tanzania | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | Mean Clinical Dementia Rating 1.65 | 8‐week follow‐up (uncontrolled) | Median 80 (IQR 76.5,85.3) | 16/18 |
| Rai 2021 | Individual cognitive stimulation app delivered by informal carers based on 'Making a Difference' manual | Community, UK | 2‐3 | 11 | 22‐33 | 30 | N/A | None | 73.0 (7.7) | 31/30 |
| Requena 2006 | Cognitive stimulation groups using computer‐controlled visual stimuli on TV screen | Community – all on donepezil, Spain | 5 | 52 and 104 | 250 and 500 | 45 | 21.9 (6.3) | None | 77.0 (7.5) | 20/30 |
| Spector 2001 | Cognitive stimulation groups using ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Mixed community & care home, UK | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 13.1 (4.4) | None | 85.7 (6.7) | 21 /14 |
| Spector 2003 | Cognitive stimulation groups using ‘Making a Difference’ manual | Mixed community & care home, UK | 2 | 7 | 14 | 45 | 14.4 (3.8) | None | 85.3 (7.0) | 115/86 |
| Tanaka 2021 | Group exercise and cognitive stimulation | Residential geriatric rehabilitation facility | 2 | 8 | 16 | 45 | 15.5 (5.8) | None | 86.2 (7.8) | 16/15 |
| Tsantali 2017 | Individual cognitive stimulation delivered by psychologists | Community – all receiving AChEIs, Greece | 3 | 16 | 48 | 90 | 23.0 (1.3) | 8‐month follow‐up | 73.7 (5.3) | 17/21 |
| Young 2019 | Cognitive stimulation groups plus Tai Chi (using adapted ‘Making a Difference’ manual) | Community, Hong Kong | 2 | 7 | 14 | 60 | 20.7 (2.3) | None | 80.2 (6.4) | 51/50 |
AChEI: acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor
CST: cognitive stimulation therapy
CST‐PD: cognitive stimulation therapy – Parkinson’s Disease
iCST: individual cognitive stimulation therapy
IQR: interquartile range
MAKS: motor stimulation; activities of daily living; cognitive stimulation; spiritual element
MMSE: Mini Mental State Examination
MoCA: Montreal Cognitive Assessment
N/A: not applicable
RAM: Roy’s adaptation model
RO: reality orientation
SADEM: study on ageing and dementia in Mexico