TABLE 1.

Representing pharmacological functions of different species of silkworms, functional ingredients present in pupae and mechanisms involved with different pharmacological functions.

Species of silkworm pupae	Pharmacological functions	Functional ingredients	Occurring mechanism or effect	References
Antheraea assamensis	Antioxidant	Methanolic pupae extract	Free-radical scavenging activity that is dose-dependent.	(58)
		Polyphenols	High ROS scavenging activity was observed. Effective as a natural antioxidant in the development of protein-rich foods.	(135)
Antheraea mylitta	Antioxidant	Polyphenols	High ROS scavenging activity was observed. Effective as a natural antioxidant in the development of protein-rich foods.	(135)
Bombyx mori	Antitumor	Protein hydrolysates	Shows potent anticancer activity by inhibiting the proliferation of human gastric cancer cells SGC-7901.	(84)
		Protein hydrolysates	Structural changes in intracellular organelles of MGC-803 gastric cancer cells leading to vacuolization and rupture.	(86)
		Protein extracts	Significantly reduces the IL-6, IL-1, TNF- levels, protein, and nucleic acid content of breast cancer cells MCF-7.	(85)
	Antioxidant	Protein hydrolysates	Promotes ABTS free-radical scavenging activity thereby preventing diseases caused by oxidative stress.	(77)
		Protein hydrolysates	In Hepatic HepG2 cells, higher activity of ROS reduction and superoxide dismutase expression.	(136)
		Polyphenols	High ROS scavenging activity was observed.	(135)
	Antibacterial	Chitin and chitosan	Antifungal activity is superior to commercially available chitosan. Also, it can be utilized as a sustainable source of chitosan.	(91)
		Peptides	The Peptide Ranker and the CAMP database found peptide sequences with potential bioactivity with the highest score.	(137)
		Oil	Effective antibacterial activity against the gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus.	(88)
	Antiapoptotic	Silkworm Protein 30Kc6	30Kc6 prevented oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced cell death in HUVEC cells by blocking MAPK signaling pathways aiding in human cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment.	(103)
		Silkworm haemolymph	The silkworm’s haemolymph may directly affect the baculovirus-induced apoptosis cascade or promote the expression of antiapoptotic baculovirus genes such as p35 in insect cells (Sf 9) infected with baculovirus (AcNPV).	(96)
		Recombinant 30 K protein	In humans (HeLa cells) and insect cells (Sf 9), recombinant 30 K protein prevents apoptosis triggered by viruses or chemicals.	(97)
		Silkworm haemolymph	Silkworm haemolymph inhibited apoptosis, which reduced cell detachment from an adhering surface. Thereby being helpful in preventing cell death.	(99)
	Blood pressure reduction	Protein hydrolysates	Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory action is found in silkworm protein hydrolysates.	(92)
		Protein hydrolysates	Angiotensin-converting enzyme was inhibited in a competitive manner. The mode of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition was competitive.	(138)
		Protein hydrolysates	By flexible docking calculation, the peptide inhibitory activity was 0.047 mg/ml in IC50, and it was bound to Asp415, Asp453, Thr282, His 353, and Glu162 in the hydrogen bond to the angiotensin-converting enzyme active pocket.	(93)
	Antiageing	Oils and sericin	Oils and sericin have tyrosinase inhibitory and free-radical scavenging properties in vitro. Hence used in cosmetics for whitening.	(109)
	Alcohol detoxification	Extracts	There is a significant increase in alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the livers of mice suggesting that the extract could be employed as a therapeutic substance to help people avoid hangovers.	(106)
	Anti-Alzheimer’s disease	Silkworm pupa vaccine	Recombinant proteins synthesized in domestic silkworm pupae improved memory and cognitive performance in mice. Hence, very nutritious CTB-A15 silkworm pupae vaccine could be used to prevent Alzheimer’s disease in the future.	(139)
		Silkworm pupae Powder	Hippocampal memory deficit was significantly reduced in vivo, as was hippocampal neuron density. Silkworm pupae appear to be a potentially useful meal for Alzheimer’s disease prevention.	(140)
	Antifatigue	Powders of silkworm, pupae, dongchung hacho, and silk powder	Increases swimming time and muscle mass in mice while reducing tiredness. It has anti-fatigue properties and may help athletes perform better.	(108)
	As bioreactor		Silkworm nucleopolyhedrosis virus was used to successfully express the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in silkworm pupae. For heterologous protein expression, the silkworm pupa is a convenient and low-cost bioreactor.	(110)
	Immune regulation	Polysaccharide	Innate immunity is turned on in penaeid prawns, it effectively inhibits vibriosis.	(141)
		Peptides	Immune-related factors such as interleukin-6 and interleukin-12, nuclear factor-B, cyclin D1, and cyclin-dependent kinase 4 are all stimulated. Hence it has an immunomodulatory function and may have medicinal promise.	(142)
	Blood lipid reduction; weight loss	Peptides	Adipogenesis is inhibited resulting in a decrease in body weight gain. Alternatives to reduce dietary obesity that have no negative effects could be viable options.	(143)
	Blood glucose regulation	Soluble fibroin	In 3T3-L1 adipocytes, fibronectin promotes glucose absorption and metabolism. This could explain why the body’s response to fiber improves diabetic hyperglycemia.	(144)
		Purified fibroin	The findings show a decrease in glucose levels in the haemolymph. Diabetes, obesity, and other lifestyle-related disorders may benefit from this supplement.	(95)