Table 5.
Selected peer-reviewed publications describing methods of evaluation of depression- and anxiety-like behaviors in lemur (infant = 0–0.2 y; juvenile = 0.2–1 y; adult = 1–12 y); owl monkey (infant = 0–0.5 y; juvenile = 0.5–2 y; adult = 2–12 y); capuchin (infant = 0–1 y; juvenile = 1–6y; adult = 6–25 y), squirrel monkey (infant = 0–1 y; juvenile = 1–4 y; adult = 4–20 y); vervet (infant = 0–1 y; juvenile = 1–3 y; adult = 3–12 y); baboon (infant = 0–1 y; juvenile = 1–4 y; adult = 4–25 y), chimpanzee (infant = 0–5 y; juvenile = 5–12 y; adult = 12–50 y).
| Reference | Age, Sex | Testing paradigm | Behavioral measures | Biological measures | Imaging |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gray mouse lemur (microcebus murinas) | |||||
| Pifferi et al. (2019) | Adults, f & m | Open field, three-panel maze | Latency to move, avoidance locomotion | None | None |
| Fritz et al. (2020) | Adults, f & m | Open field with-without novel object, sequential choice test, light-dark maze | Exploration | None | MRI |
| Owl monkey (Aotus nancymaae) | |||||
| Osman et al. (2020) | Juveniles, f & m | Maternal separation | Pace, rest, head twirl | Hair cortisol (pg/ml), infection history | None |
| Capuchin (Cebus apella) | |||||
| Sorrentino et al. (2012) | Juveniles and adults, f & m | Observations in wild group | Scratch, aggressive and self-directed behaviors, vocalizations | None | None |
| Kean et al. (2017) | Juveniles and adults, f & m | Observations in wild and captive groups, food competition | Alarm call, scratch | Fecal cortisol | None |
| Squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) | |||||
| Canon and Houser (1978) | Adults, f | Discrete trial conflict test with 5–7.5mg/kg chlordiazepoxide, 1–2mg/kg diazepam, 125–150 mg/kg meprobamate, 4 mg/kg chlorpromazine | Task performance in conflict approach-avoidance trials | None | None |
| Levine and Mody (2003) | Juveniles, f & m | Maternal separation | Vocalizations | Plasma and CSF cortisol (μg/dl), CSF monoamine metabolites MHPG, HVA, 5HIAA (ng/ml) | None |
| Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) | |||||
| Marais et al. (2006) | Infants, f & m | Observations in captive groups | Stereotypy, huddling, exploration, activity | CSF cortisol (μg/dl), CSF monoamine metabolites MHPG, HVA, 5HIAA, DOPAC | None |
| McDougall (2011) | Adults, f | Observations in wild groups | Scratch, groom, self-touch, body shake, yawn | None | None |
| Bonnet Monkey (Macaca radiata) | |||||
| Jackowski et al. (2011) | Juveniles, m | VFD early stress paradigm as infants, human intruder test | Fearful responses | Genotype for “s” allele | MRI |
| Japanese Macaque (Macaca fuscata) | |||||
| Troisi et al. (1991) | Adults, f | Observation of maternal anxiety | Scratch | None | None |
| Olive baboon (Papio anubis) | |||||
| Castles et al. (1999) | Adults, f | Observations in wild groups | Scratch, groom, self-touch, body shake, yawn | None | None |
| Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) | |||||
| Baker and Aureli (1997) | Juveniles and adults, f & m | Observations in captive groups | Self-groom, scratch, yawn, social behavior, exploration, vocalization, locomotion | None | None |
Abbreviations: y, years; 5-HIAA, 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; CSF, cerebral spinal fluid; DOPAC, dopamine metabolite dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; f, female; HVA, catecholamine metabolite homovanillic acid; m, male; MHPG, norepinephrine metabolite 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; VFD, variable foraging demand.