Table 3.
Multivariable Models of Social Isolation Indicators and Index.
| Variables | Child isolation | Family isolation | Friend isolation | Participation disengagement | Religious disengagement | Unmarried | Living alone | Social isolation indexa |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00)* | 1.02 (1.00, 1.03) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.00 (1.00, 1.01) |
| Gender | ||||||||
| Male | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Female | 0.43 (0.32, 0.57)*** | 0.48 (0.38, 0.61)*** | 0.58 (0.44, 0.76)*** | 0.98 (0.69, 1.39) | 0.55 (0.38, 0.81)** | 1.69 (1.36, 2.09)*** | 0.95 (0.75, 1.21) | 0.89 (0.82, 0.97)** |
| Household income | ||||||||
| Less than $25,000 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| $25,000–$50,000 | 0.65 (0.45, 0.95)* | 0.62 (0.36, 1.10) | 0.64 (0.41, 1.00) | 0.70 (0.46, 1.05) | 0.62 (0.40, 0.97)* | 0.20 (0.14, 0.30)*** | 0.41 (0.28, 0.60)*** | 0.68 (0.60, 0.76)*** |
| $50,000–$75,000 | 0.78 (0.51, 1.19) | 0.55 (0.33, 0.93)* | 0.66 (0.38, 1.16) | 0.50 (0.32, 0.78)** | 0.62 (0.34, 1.13) | 0.11 (0.07, 0.17)*** | 0.22 (0.13, 0.38)*** | 0.59 (0.51, 0.67)*** |
| $75,000–$100,000 | 0.58 (0.25, 1.34) | 0.71 (0.35, 1.47) | 0.49 (0.27, 0.88)* | 0.75 (0.35, 1.63) | 0.55 (0.22, 1.38) | 0.04 (0.02, 0.09)*** | 0.13 (0.07, 0.25)*** | 0.47 (0.36, 0.60)*** |
| More than $100,000 | 0.49 (0.25, 0.98)* | 0.59 (0.32, 1.06) | 0.76 (0.44, 1.31) | 0.56 (0.26, 1.21) | 0.79 (0.44, 1.39) | 0.03 (0.01, 0.06)*** | 0.09 (0.04, 0.18)*** | 0.41 (0.33, 0.49)*** |
| Education | ||||||||
| Less than high school | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| High school diploma | 1.21 (0.82, 1.76) | 1.17 (0.81, 1.68) | 0.98 (0.67, 1.43) | 0.61 (0.46, 0.81)** | 0.73 (0.46, 1.15) | 0.79 (0.54, 1.17) | 1.20 (0.78, 1.84) | 0.94 (0.87, 1.02) |
| Some college | 1.00 (0.71, 1.40) | 1.68 (1.12, 2.52)* | 1.05 (0.72, 1.54) | 0.38 (0.24, 0.59)*** | 0.79 (0.48, 1.28) | 1.09 (0.71, 1.67) | 1.37 (0.93, 2.01) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.05) |
| Bachelor’s or higher | 2.01 (1.22, 3.31)** | 2.08 (1.37, 3.17)** | 0.66 (0.44, 1.00) | 0.19 (0.11, 0.33)*** | 0.63 (0.35, 1.14) | 1.22 (0.73, 2.06) | 1.91 (1.29, 2.84)** | 1.03 (0.90, 1.17) |
| Employment status | ||||||||
| Not working | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Working | 0.64 (0.42, 0.99)* | 0.70 (0.51, 0.95)* | 0.99 (0.69, 1.44) | 0.56 (0.39, 0.80)** | 0.97 (0.67, 1.41) | 1.71 (1.28, 2.30)*** | 1.20 (0.89, 1.63) | 0.95 (0.88, 1.03) |
| Region of residence | ||||||||
| South | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Northeast | 1.29 (0.84, 2.00) | 1.14 (0.77, 1.71) | 0.57 (0.37, 0.89)* | 1.14 (0.71, 1.87) | 1.94 (01.14, 3.32)* | 1.39 (0.93, 2.08) | 1.31 (0.86, 2.01) | 1.10 (0.99, 1.21) |
| Midwest | 1.26 (0.83, 1.92) | 1.34 (0.89, 2.04) | 0.80 (0.54, 1.18) | 0.94 (0.63, 1.41) | 1.08 (0.72, 1.63) | 1.24 (0.88, 1.74) | 1.71 (1.12, 2.61)* | 1.09 (0.98, 1.22) |
| West | 1.83 (0.98, 3.41) | 1.50 (0.93, 2.43) | 0.76 (0.50, 1.15) | 0.64 (0.31, 1.31) | 1.76 (0.98, 3.19) | 1.18 (0.61, 2.27) | 1.32 (0.77, 2.28) | 1.17 (1.01, 1.35)* |
| Neighborhood social cohesion | 0.89 (0.76, 1.06) | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 0.82 (0.72, 0.93)** | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 1.02 (0.87, 1.19) | 1.15 (0.97, 1.37) | 1.07 (0.94, 1.22) | 0.97 (0.94, 1.01) |
| Neighborhood physical disorder | 0.93 (0.79, 1.08) | 1.00 (0.86, 1.17) | 0.82 (0.73, 0.93)** | 0.95 (0.82, 1.10) | 1.00 (0.85, 1.18) | 1.07 (0.93, 1.24) | 1.04 (0.91, 1.19) | 0.97 (0.94, 1.00) |
| Urbanicity | ||||||||
| Urban | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Suburban | 0.74 (0.47, 1.16) | 1.04 (0.67, 1.63) | 0.94 (0.66, 1.34) | 1.04 (0.69, 1.55) | 0.91 (0.60, 1.39) | 0.63 (0.46, 0.88)** | 1.04 (0.76, 1.42) | 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) |
| Rural | 1.08 (0.73, 1.63) | 1.29 (0.78, 2.12) | 0.70 (0.42, 1.17) | 0.94 (0.60, 1.49) | 1.34 (0.78, 2.30) | 0.64 (0.33, 1.23) | 0.96 (0.55, 1.70) | 0.91 (0.79, 1.06) |
| Wave | ||||||||
| 2014 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2016 | 1.25 (0.94, 1.67) | 1.21 (0.87, 1.68) | 0.93 (0.70, 1.23) | 1.48 (1.15, 1.92)** | 1.55 (1.12, 2.15)** | 1.38 (1.01, 1.89)* | 1.16 (0.89, 1.51) | 1.12 (1.04, 1.22)* |
Note. All multivariable models account for the complex survey weights of the Health and Retirement Study. With the exception of the social isolation index, all other models were multivariable logistic regression models and present odds ratios with the 95% confidence interval in parentheses. *indicates statistical significance at the .05 level, ** indicates statistical significance at the .01 level, and *** indicates statistical significance at the .001 level
aindicates a negative binomial regression was used in the social isolation index model. The last model with the social isolation index present incident rate ratios and the 95% confidence interval in parentheses. All other models present odds ratios and the 95% confidence interval in parentheses.