Figure 2.

The overlapping effects of microbial dysbiosis in HF and cancer. Overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria and decreased SCFA levels can induce intestinal inflammation, resulting in increased circulating PAMPs, which can induce cardiac fibrosis and dysfunction. Increased circulating levels of microbial metabolite TMAO can induce atherosclerotic plaque formation and HF. In cancer increased TMAO and pathogenic bacteria can directly promote tumour growth by activating immune cells. In addition, pathogenic bacteria can directly promote tumourigenesis by activating Wnt/β-catenin signalling. Decreased SCFA levels are favourable for tumourigenesis and tumour cells actively inhibit SCFA uptake.