Table 4.
Risk/Protective Factors Examined in Relation to Anxiety Psychopathology, Ranked in Order of Strongest Risk Factor to Strongest Protective Factor
| Reference | Risk/Protective Factor | k | N | Pooled Effect Size | I2 | AMSTAR 2 Rating | GRADE Rating | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Metric | Estimate | 95% CI | p < .05 | eOR | |||||||
| Potential risk factors (eOR > 1.00) | |||||||||||
| Fitzallen et al., 2021 | Preterm birth | 4 | 1,197 | OR | 2.63FE | (0.87, 7.95) | No | 2.63 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ⊕ ◯ ◯ |
| Rönnblad et al., 2019 | Job insecurity | 2 | 7,910 | OR | 1.77RE | (1.18, 2.65) | Yes | 1.77 | 52% | ★★☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Smith et al., 2018 | Doubts about actions | 5 | 1,191 | r | 0.13RE | (0.05, 0.20) | Yes | 1.61 | 33% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Gong et al., 2022 | Maternal severe obesity | 2 | 1,107,912 | RR | 1.56FE | (1.44, 1.68) | Yes | 1.56 | 0% | ★★☆☆ | ⊕ ⊕ ◯ ◯ |
| Maes et al., 2019 | Loneliness | 10 | 3,995 | β | 0.12RE | (0.04, 0.21) | Yes | 1.55 | 72% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Jadambaa et al., 2019 | Bullying victimization | 20 | NR | RR | 1.52FE | (1.35, 1.72) | Yes | 1.52 | 34% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ⊕ ◯ ◯ |
| Smith et al., 2018 | Concern over mistakes | 5 | 1,264 | r | 0.11RE | (0.06, 0.17) | Yes | 1.49 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Pinquart, 2017 | Parental psychological control | 18 | NR | r | 0.10RE | (0.05, 0.15) | Yes | 1.44 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Jeronimus et al., 2016 | Neuroticism | 9 | 14,646 | d | 0.18NR | (0.06, 0.27) | Yes | 1.39 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Gong et al., 2022 | Maternal moderate obesity | 2 | 1,107,912 | RR | 1.36FE | (1.28, 1.44) | Yes | 1.36 | 0% | ★★☆☆ | ⊕ ⊕ ◯ ◯ |
| Pinquart, 2017 | Parental harsh control | 2 | NR | r | 0.08RE | (−0.06, 0.21) | No | 1.34 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Smith et al., 2018 | Personal standards | 4 | 962 | r | 0.08RE | (0.02, 0.15) | Yes | 1.34 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Gong et al., 2022 | Maternal hypertensive disorders | 3 | 30,517 | RR | 1.32RE | (0.84, 1.79) | No | 1.32 | 57% | ★★☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Liao et al., 2022 | Peer victimization | 22 | NR | β | 0.07RE | (0.05, 0.09) | Yes | 1.29 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Smith et al., 2018 | Socially prescribed perfectionism | 9 | 2,665 | r | 0.04RE | (0.00, 0.09) | No | 1.16 | 19% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Pinquart, 2017 | Parental behavioral control | 18 | NR | r | 0.03RE | (−0.03, 0.09) | No | 1.12 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Smith et al., 2018 | Self-oriented perfectionism | 8 | 2,363 | r | 0.03RE | (−0.01, 0.07) | No | 1.12 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Prieto-Fidalgo et al., 2022 | Observing facet of dispositional mindfulness | 13 | 495 | β | 0.03RE | NR | No | 1.12 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Twomey, 2017 | Cannabis use | 7 | 53,719 | OR | 1.09RE | (0.97, 1.24) | No | 1.09 | 18% | ★★☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Prieto-Fidalgo et al., 2022 | Non-judging facet of dispositional mindfulness | 14 | 842 | β | 0.01RE | NR | No | 1.04 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Potential protective factors (eOR < 1.00) | |||||||||||
| Prieto-Fidalgo et al., 2022 | Describing facet of dispositional mindfulness | 14 | 842 | β | −0.02RE | NR | No | 0.93 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Pinquart, 2017 | Parental autonomy granting | 14 | NR | r | −0.04RE | (−0.10, 0.02) | No | 0.86 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Pinquart, 2017 | Parental warmth | 20 | NR | r | −0.05RE | (−0.11, 0.01) | No | 0.83 | 0% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Khazanov & Ruscio, 2016 | Positive emotionality | 26 | 11,494 | β | −0.06RE | (−0.09, −0.04) | Yes | 0.80 | 30% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Prieto-Fidalgo et al., 2022 | Non-reacting facet of dispositional mindfulness | 13 | 495 | β | −0.09RE | NR | Yes | 0.72 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Sowislo & Orth, 2013 | Self-esteem | 18 | 3,597 | β | −0.10RE | (−0.14, −0.06) | Yes | 0.69 | 18% | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| Prieto-Fidalgo et al., 2022 | Acting with awareness facet of dispositional mindfulness | 17 | 1,175 | β | −0.11RE | NR | Yes | 0.67 | NR | ★☆☆☆ | ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ |
| McDowell et al., 2019 | Physical activity | 3 | 17,725 | OR | 0.66RE | (0.53, 0.82) | Yes | 0.66 | 62% | ★★☆☆ | ⊕ ⊕ ◯ ◯ |
Note. CI = confidence interval; eOR = equivalent odds ratio; OR = odds ratio; RR = risk ratio; RE = random effects model; FE = fixed effects model; NR = not reported.
k represents the number of samples; N represents the number of participants; I2 represents heterogeneity. AMSTAR 2 rating indicates overall methodological quality of the review, where ★☆☆☆ = critically low, ★★☆☆ = low, ★★★☆ = moderate, and ★★★★ = high. GRADE rating indicates quality of evidence for the specific risk/protective factor, where ⊕ ◯ ◯ ◯ = very low, ⊕ ⊕ ◯ ◯ = low, ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ◯ = moderate, and ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ = high.