Table 3.
Prospective associations between smoking status and markers of arterial stiffness
| Model 1** Beta estimate [95% CI] | p value | Model 2# Beta estimate [95% CI] |
p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Estimates for stiffness index | ||||
| All | ||||
| Never smoking (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| Current smoking | 0.45 [0.26; 0.65] | < 0.0001 | 0.42 [0.20; 0.65] | 0.00023 |
| Former smoking | 0.19 [0.035; 0.34] | 0.016 | 0.18 [− 0.0050; 0.36] | 0.057 |
| Men | ||||
| Never smoking (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| Current smoking | 0.54 [0.26; 0.82] | 0.00017 | 0.61 [0.28; 0.93] | 0.00027 |
| Former smoking | 0.24 [0.022; 0.47] | 0.032 | 0.29 [0.032; 0.55] | 0.028 |
| Women | ||||
| Never smoking (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| Current smoking | 0.31 [0.045; 0.57] | 0.021 | 0.18 [− 0.12; 0.48] | 0.24 |
| Former smoking | 0.13 [− 0.085; 0.34] | 0.24 | 0.059 [− 0.19; 0.31] | 0.65 |
| Estimates for augmentation index | ||||
| All | ||||
| Never smoking (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| Current smoking | 2.7 [1.5; 4.0] | < 0.0001 | 3.0 [1.6; 4.5] | < 0.0001 |
| Former smoking | − 0.092 [− 1.1; 0.91] | 0.86 | − 0.30 [− 1.4; 0.85] | 0.61 |
| Men | ||||
| Never smoking (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| Current smoking | 2.4 [0.78; 3.9] | 0.0035 | 2.9 [1.1; 4.7] | 0.0020 |
| Former smoking | − 0.72 [− 2.0; 0.52] | 0.25 | − 1.1 [− 2.6; 0.34] | 0.13 |
| Women | ||||
| Never smoking (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| Current smoking | 3.0 [0.99; 5.1] | 0.0038 | 3.2 [0.93; 5.5] | 0.0059 |
| Former smoking | 0.43 [− 1.2; 2.1] | 0.61 | 0.34 [− 1.5; 2.2] | 0.72 |
Beta estimates and 95% confidence intervals are derived from a linear regression model modelling for arterial stiffness. Current and former smoking were compared to never smoking (reference category)
Statistically significant P values (P < 0.05) are given in bold
**Model 1 was adjusted for baseline stiffness index/augmentation index and age (and sex in the analyses for all). Augmentation index was additionally adjusted for height and heart rate. In women further adjustment for postmenopausal status, intake of oral contraceptives, and hormone replacement therapy was done
#Model 2 was additionally adjusted for arterial hypertension, waist-to-height ratio, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, family history of myocardial infarction or stroke, socioeconomic status, alcohol consumption, physical activity, depression, passive smoking, prevalent cardiovascular disease (compromising congestive heart failure, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, atrial fibrillation, and peripheral artery disease), and medication use (diabetic drugs, antithrombotic agents, antihypertensives, diuretics, beta-blockers, calcium channel blocker, agents acting on the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, and lipid modifying agents)