Table 2.

Clinical and pharmaceutical applications of exosomes.

Type of application	Specific biomolecules involved	Specific disease condition	Reference
Diagnosis	CD81	Hepatitis mediated liver fibrosis	[77]
	CD63/LAMP-3	Melanoma, lung and ovarian cancer	[78,79]
	EGFR	Glioblastoma	[57,80,81,82,83,84,85]
	Glypican-1, miR-375 miRNA-200c-3p, 21–5p and Let-7a-5p	Pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer severity scoring
	Retinoic acid induced protein/Resistin	Bladder cancer
	miRNA-21	Esophageal lesions
	mi-RNA-139–5p, 378a, 379 and 200–5p	Lung cancer
	miRNA-574–3p and 141–5p	Prostate cancer
	piR-4987	Lymph node metastasis	[[86], [87], [88]]
	piR-932 and PIWIL2	Breast cancer metastasis
	piR-32052, 39,894 and 43,607	Renal carcinoma
	Aβ-peptide and phosphorylated τ-protein	Alzheimer's disease	[89,90]
	cathepsin-D and α-synuclein	Parkinson's disease	[90,91]
Therapy	KrasG12D-specific siRNA	Lung carcinoma	[92]
	Mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes	Host Vs Graft rejection	[93]
	Umbilical cord-mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes	Immunomodulation for treatment of diabetes	[94]
	Exosomes from T-regulatory cells		[95]
	Neurological cell derived exosomes	Brain ischemia, Parkinson's disease	[96,97]
	Viral infected cells derived exosomes	SARS-CoV-2	[98,99]
Site targeted therapy	Viral infected cells derived exosomes loaded with target protein through HIV-Nef, Env protein, Nedd4	HIV infection (AIDS)	[100]
	Transferrin & lactoferrin	Pre-cancerous lesions	[101]
	Ubiquitination	Therapy based on target proteins	[[102], [103], [104]]
	Myristoylation and palmitoylation
	L7Ae and C/D box		[105,106]
	Connexin 43		[107]
	miR-193a bound to Major vault protein, myoferlin, AGO2 and GW182	Tumor suppression	[108]
	miR-126	Myocardial ischemic injury	[109]
	anti-miR-214 gene	Gastric tumor sensitization and inhibition of metastasis	[110]
	HGF-siRNA	Tumor metastasis
Drug delivery	Mesenchymal cells derived miR-124	Glioblastoma	[111]
	Prostate cancer cells derived miR-141–3p	Bone metastasis	[112]
	Integrin αVβ5	Liver lesions	[113]
	Integrin α6β1	Lung cancer
	Lactadherin C1C2 domain and Lamp2b	Tumor inhibition	[114]
	Immature dendritic cell derived exosomes with iRDG and Lamp2b	Breast cancer inhibition	[115]
	rabies virus glycoprotein (RGV) and related peptides; c(RGDyK)	Brain lesions	[116]
	Morphine receptor silencing siRNA bound to RGV	Morphine addiction	[117]
	Klotho gene and adenosine kinase siRNA	Endothelial dysfunction	[118]
	Glycosylphosphatidyl inositol (GPI)	Immunomodulation	[119]
	A33 antibodies with iron oxide nanoparticles	Inhibition of tumor growth	[120]
	Aminoethyl-anisamide-polyethylene glycol paclitaxel	Cancer cell accumulation and inhibition of tumor growth	[121]
	Antibodies-like RNA	Prostate cancer, breast cancer or colorectal cancer cells	[122]
	Small molecule inhibitors or siRNA with antibodies-like RNA	Cancer inhibition
	Glycoprotein based adhesion molecules	Wound repair	[123]
	PEG with phospholipid derivative	Targeting epidermal growth factor receptors	[124]