TABLE 1.
Hyperthermophile diversity
| Organism (references) | Growth conditions | Isolation/habitat | Metabolic properties | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacteria | ||||||
| Aquificales | ||||||
| Aquifex pyrophilus (152) | 85°C, pH 6.8, 3% NaCl | Shallow MHTVc, Kolbeinsey Ridge, north off Iceland | Microaerophilic, strict chemolithoautotroph. H2, S0, and S2O32− serve as electron donors; O2 and NO3− serve as electron acceptors | |||
| Thermocrinis ruber (147) | 80°C, pH 7.0–8.5, <0.4% NaCl | Octopus spring, Yellowstone | Chemolithoautotrophic microaerophile; grows chemoorganoheterotrophically on formate or formamide | |||
| Thermotogales | ||||||
| Thermotoga maritimaa (150) | 80°C, pH 6.5, 2.7% NaCl | Heated sea floors, Vulcano, Italy, and Azores | Heterotroph anaerobe. Grows on cabohydrates and proteins; H2 inhibits growth. | |||
| T. neapolitana (24) | 77°C, pH 7.5 | Shallow marine hot spring, Naples, Italy | Heterotroph anaerobe; grows on glucose, sucrose, lactose, starch, and YEc; reduces S0 to H2S | |||
| Thermotoga strain FjSS3-B.1 (153) | 80–85°C, pH 7.0 | Intertidal hot spring, Savusavu, Fiji | Anaerobe, chemoorganotroph; grows on carbohydrates, including glycogen, starch, and cellulose; produces acetate, H2, and CO2, does not reduce S0 or SO42− | |||
| Archaea: Crenarchaeota | ||||||
| Sulfolobales | ||||||
| Sulfolobus shibatae (122) | 81°C, pH 3.0 | Acidic geothermal spring, Beppu, Kiushu Island, Japan | Aerobe; facultative chemolithoautotrophic growth by S0 oxidation; can grow on carbohydrates, YEc, and tryptone | |||
| S. solfataricusb (383) | 87°C | Solfataric fields | Heterotroph; grows on carbohydrates | |||
| S. islandicus (380) | Unknown | Solfataric fields, Iceland | Obligate heterotroph; grows on peptides and carbohydrates | |||
| Stygiolobus azoricus (302) | 80°C, pH 2.5–3.0 | Solfataric fields, Sao Miguel Island, Azores | Strict anaerobe; grows chemolithoautotrophically on H2 by reducing S0 to H2S; no growth by anaerobic S0 oxidation | |||
| Acidianus infernus (301) | 90°C, pH 2.0, 0.2% NaCl | Hot water, mud, and marine sediments at hot springs in Italy, the Azores, and the United States | Facultative aerobe, obligate chemolithotrophic growth by S0 oxidation (aerobic) or by S0 reduction with H2 (anaerobic) | |||
| A. ambivalens (106, 384) | 80°C, pH 2.5 | Solfataric source, Leirhnukur fissure, Iceland | Facultative anaerobe, chemolithoautotroph; uses either S0 + O2 (yielding H2SO4) or S0 + H2 (yielding H2S) as energy source. | |||
| Thermoproteales | ||||||
| Thermoproteus tenax (33, 382) | 88°C, pH 5.0 | Solfataric fields, Iceland | Anaerobe, facultative chemolithoautotroph; heterotrophic growth on glucose, starch, glycogen, a few alcohols, a few organic acids, peptides, and formamide by S0 respiration; H2S required; produces acetate, isovalerate, and isobutyrate from peptone + S0 | |||
| T. neutrophilus (104, 295) | 85°C, pH 6.8 | Hot spring, Iceland | Anaerobe, facultative autotroph; acetate >> succinate > propionate can be used as carbon sources | |||
| T. uzoniensis (33) | 90°C, pH 5.6 | Uzon caldera, Kamchatka peninsula | Anaerobe; ferments peptides, producing acetate, isovalerate, and isobutyrate; S0 stimulates growth. | |||
| Pyrobaculum islandicum (148) | 100°C, pH 6.0 | Geothermal power plant, Iceland | Anaerobe, facultative heterotroph (growth on peptide substrates with S0, S2O32− sulfite, l-cystine, or oxidized glutathione as electron acceptors; grows chemolithoautotrophically on CO2, S0 + H2, (produces H2S) | |||
| P. organotrophum (148) | 102°C, pH 6.0 | Solfataric fields, Iceland, Italy, and Azores | Anaerobe, obligate heterotroph; growth on peptide substrates with S0, l-cystine, or oxidized glutathione as electron acceptor | |||
| P. aerophilumb (355) | 100°C, pH 7.0, 1.5% NaCl | Shallow marine boiling-water holes, Iischia, Italy | Grows by aerobic respiration or by dissimilatory nitrate reduction; heterotrophic growth on peptide substrates, propionate, and acetate; autotrophic growth by H2 or S2O32− oxidation; S0 inhibits growth | |||
| Thermofilum pendens (376) | 85–90°C, pH 5.0–6.0 | Solfataric fields, Iceland | Heterotrophic anaerobe, mildly acidophile; grows by S0 respiration on complex peptide substrates; requires S0, H2S, and a polar lipid fraction from T. tenax | |||
| Desulfurococcales | ||||||
| Desulfurococcus mobilis (381) | 85°C, pH 6.0 | Solfataric fields, Iceland | Strict heterotrophic anaerobe; grows on peptide substrates; S0 respiration or fermentation | |||
| D. amylolyticus (34) | 90–92°C, pH 6.4 | Thermal springs, Kamchatka peninsula | Strict heterotrophic anaerobe; grows on peptide substrates and polysaccharides; S0 stimulates growth | |||
| Staphylothermus marinus (103) | 92°C, pH 4.5–8.5, 1–3.5% NaCl | Heated sea floor, Vulcano, Italy | Strict anaerobe; S0dependent; heterotrophic growth on complex organic substrates; produces CO2, acetate, isovalerate, and H2S | |||
| Thermosphaera aggregans (146) | 85°C, pH 6.5, 0% NaCl | Yellowstone, Obsidian pool | Heterotrophic anaerobe (YE, AA mix, glucose); S0 inhibits growth | |||
| Pyrodictiales | ||||||
| Pyrodictium occultum (276, 321, 322) | 105°C, pH 5.5, 1.5% NaCl | Marine solfataric fields, Vulcano, Italy | Strict anaerobe; autotrophic growth on H2 + CO2 + S0 (produces H2S); in the presence of YE, can grow by reduction of S2O32− | |||
| P. abyssi (276) | 97°C, pH 5.5, 0.7–4.2% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV, Guaymas, Mexico; shallow MHTV, Kolbeinsey Ridge, north off Iceland | Anaerobe, strict heterotroph; grows by fermenting carbohydrates, cell extracts, proteins, and acetate; produces CO2, isovalerate, isobutyrate, and butanol, reduces S0 and S2O32− in the presence of H2 | |||
| P. brockii (276, 322) | 105°C, pH 5.5, 1.5% NaCl | Marine solfataric fields, Vulcano, Italy | Strict anaerobe; autotrophic growth on H2 + CO2 + S0 (produces H2S); YE stimulates growth yield; Reduces SO32−, not S2O32− | |||
| Hyperthermus butylicus (377) | 95–106°C, pH 7.0, 1.7% NaCl | Marine solfataric field, Azores | Heterotrophic anaerobe; uses peptide mixtures as carbon and energy sources; forms H2S from S0 + H2 as accessory energy source; produces CO2, l-butanol, acetate, phenylacetate, and hydroxyphenyl acetate | |||
| Thermodiscus maritimus (104) | 85°C, pH 6.5 | Hot sea water, Vulcano, Italy | Obligate autotroph | |||
| Pyrolobus fumarii (28) | 106°C, pH 5.5, 1.7% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV (3,650 m), Mid-Atlantic Ridge | Obligate H2-dependent chemolithoautotroph, grows by NO3−, S2O32−, or O2 (0.3%) reduction; S0 and several organic nutrients inhibit growth; no growth at 85°C and below | |||
| Unclassified | ||||||
| Aeropyrum pernixa (291) | 90–95°C, pH 7.0, 3.5% salt | Coastal solfataric MHTV, Japan | Strict aerobe, heterotroph; grows on complex peptide substrates; no H2S production | |||
| Caldococcus litoralis (385) | 88°C, pH 6.4, 2.5% NaCl | Shallow MHTV, Kurile Islands | Strict anaerobic chemoorganotroph; grows on complex peptide substrates and amino acids; S0 stimulates growth (reduced to H2S) | |||
| Archaea: Euryarchaeota | ||||||
| Thermococcales | ||||||
| Palaeococcus ferrophilus (329) | 83°C, pH 6.0, 4.7% sea salt | Deep-sea MHTV, Ogasawa-Bonin Arc, Japan | Strict anaerobic chemoorganotroph; grows on proteinaceous substrates in the presence of S0 or Fe2+ | |||
| Thermococcus aggregans (57) | 88°C, pH 7.0 | Guaymas basin, Mexico | Chemoorganotrophic strict anaerobe | |||
| T. barophilus (233) | 85°C, pH 7.0, 2–3% NaCl | MHTV (3,550 m), Mid-Atlantic Ridge | Obligate heterotroph; S0 stimulates growth; obligate barophile at 95–100°C | |||
| T. guaymasensis (57) | 88°C, pH 7.2 | Guaymas basin, Mexico | Chemoorganotrophic anaerobe | |||
| T. celer (378) | 88°C, pH 5.8, 4% NaCl | Shallow marine solfataric field, Vulcano, Italy | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; grows on peptide substrates by S0 respiration or by fermentation; NaCl required | |||
| T. acidaminovorans (84) | 85°C, pH 9.0, 1–4% NaCl | Shallow MHTV, Italy | Obligate heterotroph; grows on amino acids as sole carbon and energy source; S0 stimulates growth | |||
| T. chitonophagus (151) | 85°C, pH 6.7, 2% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV, Guaymas, Mexico | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; grows on chitin, YE, and meat extract; produces H2 (H2S in the presence of S0), CO2, NH3, acetate, and formate | |||
| T. barossii (89) | 82.5°C, pH 6.5–7.5, 1–4% NaCl | Juan de Fuca Ridge | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe, grows on peptides; S0 required for growth | |||
| T. litoralis (260) | 85°C, pH 6.0, 1.8–6.5% NaCl | Marine solfataras, Vulcano and Naples, Italy | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; grows in complex peptide substrates; S0 stimulates growth | |||
| T. profundus (186) | 80°C, pH 7.5, 2–4% NaCl | MHTV (1,400 m), Mid-Okinawa Trough, Japan | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; S0 dependent; uses complex peptide substrates, starch, pyruvate and maltose | |||
| T. stetteri (249) | 75°C, pH 6.5, 2.5% NaCl | Marine solfararic fields, Northern Kurils | Strict anaerobe, S0 dependent; uses complex peptide substrates, starch, and pectin; production of CO2, acetate, isobutyrate, isovalerate, and H2S | |||
| T. hydrothermalisb (117) | 85°C, pH 6.0 2–4% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV, East Pacific Rise | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; grows on proteolysis products, AA mix, and maltose in the presence of S0 | |||
| Pyrococcus furiosusb (102) | 100°C, pH 7.0, 2% NaCl | Marine solfataric fields, Vulcano, Italy | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; grows on peptide substrates and carbohydrates; S0 stimulates growth, probably by detoxifying H2 (forming H2S) | |||
| P. woesei (379) | 100–103°C, pH 6.0–6.5, 3% NaCl | Marine solfataras, Vulcano, Italy | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe (YE, peptides, PS); S0 respiration, no fermentation | |||
| P. abyssi (95) | 96°C, pH 6.8, 3% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV, North Fiji Basin | Obligate chemoorganotroph, fermenting peptide substrates; Produces CO2, H2, acetate, propionate, isovalerate, and isobutyrate; produces H2S in the presence of S0; facultative barophilic; NaCl required | |||
| P. horikoshiia (119) | 98°C, pH 7.0, 2.4% NaCl | Okinawa Trough, western Pacific | Obligate heterotrophic anaerobe; Trp auxotroph | |||
| Archaeoglobales | ||||||
| Archaeoglobus fulgidusa (316) | 83°C, pH 5.5–7.5 | Heated sea floor, Vulcano, Italy | Strict anaerobe; chemolithoautotroph in the presence of H2, CO2, and S2O32−; heterotrophic growth on formate, formamide, lactate, glucose, starch, and peptide substrates; produces traces of methane | |||
| A. profundus (49) | 82°C, pH 4.5–7.5, 0.9–3.6% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV, Guaymas, Mexico | Strict anaerobe, mixotroph, requires H2 for growth; uses organic acids, YE, peptide substrates as carbon sources; electron acceptors include sulfate, S2O32−, and sulfite | |||
| Methanococales | ||||||
| Methanococcus jannaschiia (167) | 85°C, pH 6.0, 2–3% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV (2,600 m), East Pacific Rise | Autotrophic anaerobe, methanogen; NaCl and sulfide required for growth | |||
| M. vulcanius (165) | 80°C, pH 6.5, 2.5% NaCl | East Pacific Rise | Anaerobe, methanogen; growth stimulated by YE, selenate, and tungstate; reduces S0 in the presence of CO2 and H2 | |||
| M. fervens (165) | 85°C, pH 6.5, 3% NaCl | Guaymas Basin, Mexico | Anaerobe, methanogen; growth stimulated by YE, selenate, and tungstate, Casamino Acids, and trypticase | |||
| M. igneus (48) | 88°C, pH 5.7, 1.8% NaCl | Shallow MHTV, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, north off Iceland | Anaerobe, methanogen, obligate chemolitho- autotroph; S0 inhibits growth | |||
| M. infernus (166) | 85°C, pH 6.5, 2.5% salt | Deep-sea MHTV, Mid-Atlantic Ridge | Chemolithotroph, obligate anaerobe, methanogen, reduces S0; YE stimulates growth | |||
| Methanobacteriales | ||||||
| Methanothermus fervidus (323) | 83°C, pH 6.5 | Icelandic hot spring | Anaerobe, methanogen; requires YE to grow in artificial medium | |||
| M. sociabilis (292) | 88°C, pH 6.5 | Continental solfatara fields, Iceland | Anaerobic S-independent autotroph; methanogen | |||
| Methanopyrales | ||||||
| Methanopyrus kandleri (149) | 98°C, pH 6.5, 1.5% NaCl | Deep-sea MHTV, Guaymas, Mexico | Strict anaerobe chemolithoautotroph; methanogen |
a
Fully sequenced genomes.
b
Genome sequencing in progress
c
Abbreviations: MHTV, marine hydrothermal vent; YE, yeast extract; AA, amino acid.