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Major cellular signaling pathways activated by viral infections. Virus-induced expression of cytokines and chemokines is primarily due to stimulation of one or more of the depicted signal transduction cascades, leading to activation of the following transcription factors: IRF-3 and IRF-7 (A), ATF-2/Jun (B), AP-1 (C), NF-AT (D), and NF-κB (E). For more detailed descriptions, see the text. S/T, serine/threonine.
