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Mechanisms of NF-κB activation by viruses. (A) Viral envelope glycoproteins activate signaling through engagement of cellular receptors. (B) Virus-encoded proteins interact with cellular signaling pathways and activate NF-κB. (C) Accumulation of dsRNA activates PKR, which in turn stimulates NF-κB activity. (D) ER overload due to massive viral protein expression can lead to activation of NF-κB.
