Fig. 2.

Immune response following pathogen invasion. Pathogen invasion and pathogen products, such as endotoxins, can trigger the initial sepsis cascade, evoking both innate and cell-mediated immune responses. Numerous factors may contribute to a dysregulated host response to infection, including upregulation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, leukocyte activation, damage-associated molecular patterns released by injured cells, and host-specific factors such as age, comorbidities, and genetic characteristics. Escalation of the dysregulated immune response in the form of coagulopathy and excessive inflammation leads to endothelial injury and capillary leak, oedema formation, and compromised innate defence against invading microorganisms, which eventually leads to multiple organ failure. AKI acute kidney injury, ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome, DIC disseminated intravascular coagulation