Table 2. Characteristics of included studies and participants.

First author, year, (country)	Study design	Sample size	Participants	Definition/description of coaching	Certification/training of coaches	Participant age (mean/median years) or Age groups (n/%)	Participant sex, No. (%)
de Lasson, [30] 2016, (Denmark)	Qualitative study	45	Staff physicians (speciality NR)	Coaching as a means to unfold a person’s potential in order to maximize performance.	“The medical consultant had a Master’s degree in Organizational Coaching. The nurses had academic degrees. One held a PhD in learning processes; the other a diploma in coaching from Cambridge University.”	NR	F: 38 (84.4) M: 7(15.6)
Dyrbye, [19] 2019 (United States)	Randomized controlled trial	88	Family medicine, general pediatrics, general internal medicine physicians	“Coaching is distinct from mentorship and peer support and involves inquiry, encouragement, and accountability to increase self-awareness, motivation, and the capacity to take effective action… Professional coaching can be tailored to focus on the aspects desired by recipients and can assist individuals in their effort to navigate their professional life, their choices, and the direction of their career.”	“Credentialed professional coaches were provided by Bluepoint Leadership Development Inc, an established international professional coaching company with experience coaching physicians.”	Intervention group: 31–40: 7 (15.9%) 41–50: 25 (56.8%) 51–60: 12 (27.3%) >60: 0 Control group: 31–40: 7 (16.7%) 41–50: 20 (47.6%) 51–60: 12 (28.6%) >60: 3 (7.1%)	F: 48 (54.5) M: 40 (45.4)
Dyrbye, [31] 2022 (United States)	Randomized controlled trial	80	Surgical specialties: cardiology, gastrointestinal, general, gynecologic, neurological, oncology, ophthalmologic, orthopedic, otorhinolaryngologic, pediatrics, plastic, trauma, urologic, vascular, thoracic, transplant, other (e.g. oral)	Professional coaching is "tailored to the individual’s needs and assists individuals in navigating professional choices and behaviors… Professional coaching allows individuals to identify opportunities, generate goals, and take action related to professional needs, such as influencing change, dealing with conflict, addressing detrimental aspects of work, improving career fit, and improving work-life integration."	“The coaches had received training from various organizations with robust offerings including Right Management Global Coaching Program, Columbia University Executive Coaching Program, the Association for Professional Executive Coaches and Supervisors, and the Institute of Leadership and Management Coaching Program resulting in a coaching certification by the training organization and/or the International Coach Federation. The coaches had 15 years to over 25 years of coaching experience and 7 to 15 years of experience specifically coaching physicians and surgeons.”	Intervention group: 31–40: 12 (30%) 41–50: 21 (52.5%) 51–60: 7 (17.5%) 61+: 0 Control group: 31–40: 18 (45%) 41–50: 12 (30.0%) 51–60: 9 (22.5%) 61+: 1 (2.5%)	F: 32 (40%) M: 48 (60%)
Fainstad, [32] 2022 (United States)	Randomized controlled trial	101	Residents across 12 programs (specialties NR)	“Professional coaching uses inquiry around perceptions, beliefs, and habits to define, reframe, and align work with personal values.”	“Coaches were certified by The Life Coach School, a thought-based coaching institution with training in both group and individual coaching.”	Intervention group: Mean (SD): 29.1 (2.3) Median (Range): 29 (25–35) Control group: Mean (SD): 29.6 (2.2) Median (Range): 29 (26–35)	F: 101 (100%)
Gardiner, [33] 2013, (Australia)	Non-randomized experimental study	69	General practitioners	“A cognitive behavioural coaching program advertised as a work-life balance retreat by the Rural Doctors Work-force Agency (RDWA).”	Two qualified coaching psychologists	NR	NR
Kakarala, [34] 2018 (United States)	Pre-post study design	12	Post-graduate trainees (specialty NR)	“The Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) Professional Development Coaching Program (PDCP) was designed to optimize resident performance through principles of positive psychology, using a strength-based model.”	Certified Health and Wellness Coaches trained by Coaching Program Director. The training was 2 hours, and “combined theory and real-life practice utilizing positive psychology, mindful listening, self-reflection, exploration of possible solutions, and validation of the coachee’s self-identified strategies to reach goals.”	NR	F: 4 (33.3) M: 8 (66.7)
McGonagle, [35] 2020, (United States)	Randomized controlled trial	58	General practitioners	“Coaching is a one-on-one intervention between a coach and individual coachee that is systematic, collaborative, future-focused, and goal-focused, and is meant to help coachees attain valued professional or personal development outcome.”	Credentialing organizations included the Center for Credentialing and Education, the Center for Creative Leadership, International Coach Federation, Coaches Training Institute, and Wellcoaches.	Mean +/- Standard deviation: Intervention group: 43.31 +/- 8.76 Control group: 41.83+/-7.42	Intervention group: F: 21 (72.4) M: 8 (27.6) Control group: F: 25 (86.2) M: 5 (13.8)
McKimm, [36] 2018, United Kingdom	Mixed-methods study (pre/post design + qualitative interviews)	52	General practitioners	“The purpose of the coaching was to support [participants] in their decision-making processes and prepare them for any transition… Coaches worth with their clients to meet their need to reflect, practice, step back or forge ahead with changes they wanted to make.”	“Coaches belonged to a national network of experienced, executive, professional coaches who work within professional codes of ethics. The coaches were all trained professionals (2 with mental health backgrounds) well versed in managing the boundaries between coaching and therapy and could therefore direct [participants] towards counselling/therapy where relevant.”	Range: 30–50	F: 36 (69.2) M: 16 (30.8)
Palamara, [37] 2015 (United States)	Pre-post study design	72	Post-graduate trainees, internal medicine	“Coaching was based on the principles of positive psychology…Positive psychology coaching uses a strengths approach that emphasizes engagement, meaning, and accomplishment.”	“All coaches participated in 2 hours of training. Coaches were introduced to core concepts of developmental coaching and positive psychology, using hands on experience of coaching exercises. Strategies for managing particular situations such as poor intern performance and unrealistic self-assessment were reviewed.”	NR	NR
Palamara, [38] 2018 (United States)	Pre-post study design	104	Post-graduate trainees, internal medicine	“Positive psychology coaching, using a strengths-based approach, provides participants with additional tools required to cope with… personal and professional stressors.”	Coaches trained in the Professional Development Coaching Program using positive psychology and coaching principles.	NR	NR
Palamara, [39] 2021 (United States)	Pre-post study design	129	Post-graduate trainees, internal medicine	“Coaching focused on strengths evaluation, resiliency, and constructing a framework of positive well-being.”	“Coaches were provided a 3-hour skills-based training in positive psychology and coaching principles and given curricular guides for 1:1 meetings with their coachees.”	NR	F: 56 (43.8) M: 72 (56.2)
Palamara, [40] 2022 (United States)	Randomized controlled trial	150	Surgical residents (specialties NR)	Coaching uses “principles of positive psychology [and focuses on] creating an effect coaching presence, core coaching skills of listening, goal-setting, [and] asking future-oriented questions rather than giving advice.”	Coaches participated in a 3-hour training program from the Institute of Coaching and had the option to participate in two additional 90-minute refresher training sessions	Mean (SD): Intervention group: 30.3 (3) Control group: 30.7 (2.9)	F: 150 (100%)
Solms, [41] 2021 (Netherlands)	Non-randomized experimental study	114	Post-graduate trainees, pediatrics	“A result-oriented, systematic process in which the coach facilitates the enhancement of life experience and goal attainment in the personal and/or professional life of clients.”	Senior level of coaching experience, their experience with physician-clients, positive references from previous physician clients, and accredited coaching training.	Median (interquartile range): Intervention group: 33 (9.5) Control group: 35 (12)	Intervention group: F: 47 (82.5) M: 10 (17.5) Control group: F: 42 (73.7) M: 15 (26.3)
Song, [42] 2020 (United States)	Mixed-methods study (pre/post design + qualitative interviews)	25	Post-graduate trainees; General Surgery, Vascular Surgery, Cardiac Surgery, Plastic Surgery, Urology	Coaching focuses “on continued and evolving collaboration between coach and [participant]… The individual coaching sessions adapted to each [participant’s] needs at the time of the session.”	“The program was administered by a certified, professional coach.”	NR	F: 8 (32) M: 17 (68)