Table 2.
Effects in microglia cells by nonessential metals.
| Metal | Model | Time exposure | Concentration | Findings | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lead (Pb) | Primary microglia culture (SD rats) | 48 h | 50 μM Pb acetate (C4H6O4Pb) | ↑ Microglia activation ↑ TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS |
[148] |
| C57BL6/J mouse (in vivo) | Daily for 3 days | Pb acetate (C4H6O4Pb, 15 mg/kg, i.p.) | ↑ Microgliosis in the hippocampus via TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling cascades ↑ Expression of IL-1β and TNF-α ↑ p38-MAPK and ERK1/2 |
[152] | |
| C57BL6/J mouse (in vivo) | Exposed from PND 0 to PND 21 | Pb (low dose), 30, and 430 ppm Pb acetate (C4H6O4Pb) |
↓ Levels of C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) ↓ Levels of MHCII |
[153] | |
| BV-2 cell line | 48 h | 10 μM Pb acetate (C4H6O4Pb) | ↑ ROS and TNF-α levels significantly impacted the expression of 16 genes related to oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses in microglia | [154] | |
|
| |||||
| Aluminum (Al) | CB-84 (ATCC CRL-2467) murine microglial cells | 8 h | 2.0 μM Al2(SO4)3 |
↓ TREM2 expression ↑ NF-κB and miRNA-34a ↓ Phagocytic capacity ↑ Aggregation of Aβ42 |
[188] |
| Male Wistar rats (in vivo) | Treated for 30 days Drinking water |
Low-dose Al chloride (AlCl3) 10 ppm High-dose Al chloride (AlCl3) 100 ppm |
↑ Lipid peroxidation (LPO) ↑ ROS formation ↑ Inflammatory response and microglial activation |
[161] | |
|
| |||||
| Cadmium (Cd) | Primary microglia culture Fisher 344 rats |
2, 6, or 24 h | 0.062, 0.625, 1.25, or 2.50 μM CdCl2 |
↑ Microglial activation ↑ ROS and the activation of transcription factors sensitive to redox like NF-κB and AP-1 |
[165] |
| C57BL6/N mice in vivo BV-2 cell line in vitro |
2 weeks (i.p.) 24 h |
5 mg/kg CdCl2 1 μg/mL CdCl2 |
↑ Levels of p- NF-κB Cortex and hippocampus ↑ Iba-1, TNF-α, IL-1β, NOS2, ROS, LPO, p-NF-κB, Bax, caspase 3, and PARP-1 |
[166] | |
Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats; intraperitoneal injection: i.p.