Prevalence of opioid use (upper panel), mean daily dose in all participants (middle panel) and in opioid users (lower panel).
Opioid use was defined as ≥1 dispensing of opioid analgesics per 6-month period.
Using coarsened exact matching, bariatric surgery and intensive lifestyle participants were matched on sex, age, BMI, education, history of opioid use, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, psychiatric care, substance use disorder, antidepressant use, and anxiolytics use; general population comparators were matched on age, sex and place of residence.