Figure 4.

Subgroup analysis by previous opioid use: none (top), intermittent (middle), and chronic (bottom). Left column shows prevalence of opioid use and right column shows mean daily dose (mg).

Opioid use was defined as ≥1 dispensing of opioid analgesics per 6-month period.

Intermittent previous use: ≥1 prescription in the 2 years before intervention but not all 6-month periods.

Chronic previous use: Dispensed prescriptions in every 6-month period in the 2 years before intervention.

Using coarsened exact matching, bariatric surgery and intensive lifestyle participants were matched on sex, age, BMI, education, history of opioid use, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, psychiatric care, substance use disorder, antidepressant use, and anxiolytics use; general population comparators were matched on age, sex and place of residence.