Table 1.

List of treatments for COVID-19

Therapeutic agent	Type of therapeutic agent	Common uses	Mechanism of action	References
Melatonin	Hormone with anti-viral, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties	Broad-range of diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, sleep disturbances, chronic fatigue syndrome, infectious diseases, etc	The reduction of infection-associated oxidative stress, the inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome, the promotion of adaptive immune activity, and the decrease of immunosuppression induced by sleep deprivation and chronic stress	[169]
Sarilumab	Human mAb against IL-6 receptor	Rheumatoid arthritis	By inhibiting IL-6 receptor signaling	[170]
Siltuximab	Anti-IL-6 mAb	Multicentric Castleman disease	The prevention of the binding of IL-6 to both soluble and membrane-bound IL-6 receptors and the inhibition of IL-6 signaling	[170]
Dapagliflozin	Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor	Diabetes and heart failure	The increase of the ACE2 level, the reduction of the viral load, and the prevention of the lowering of cytosolic pH	[171]
Fedratinib	JAK2 inhibitor	Myelofibrosis	The prevention of the deteriorating results of Th17 associated cytokine storm by inhibiting the generation of some Th17 signature cytokines	[172]
Ruxolitinib	JAK1/2 inhibitor	Polycythemia vera and myelofibrosis	The reduction of systemic inflammation by mitigating exuberant cytokine storm	[173]
Acalabrutinib	Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor	B-cell malignancies	Modulation of inflammation-promoting signaling	[174]
Ibrutinib	BTK inhibitor	B-cell malignancies	The reduction of inflammation	[175]
Zanubrutinib	BTK inhibitor	Mantle cell lymphoma	Modulation of inflammation-promoting signaling	[176]
Statins	3‐hydroxy‐3‐methyl‐glutaryl‐CoA reductase inhibitors	Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease	The modulation of virus entry by acting on the CD147 and ACE2 receptors, the regulation of virus replication or degradation by inducing autophagy activation, and the limitation of cytokine storm by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasomes and NF‐κB	[177]
Cyclosporine	Calcineurin inhibitor	Rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, or interstitial lung disease	The prevention of the replication of SARS-CoV-2, un-controlled inflammatory response, and acute lung injury	[178]
Sofosbuvir + Daclatasvir, Sofosbuvir + Ledipasvir	RdRp inhibitors	Hepatitis C	The termination of the RNA synthesis process by incorporating into the RNA chain	[179]
Galidesivir	RdRp inhibitor	Ebola	The inhibition of viral replication by premature termination of RNA transcription	[180]
Leflunomide	Human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) inhibitor	Autoimmune diseases	Direct targeting the DHODH (host de-novo pyrimidine synthesis enzyme), and hence the inhibition of viral RNA genome replication	[181]
Adalimumab	mAb, tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitor	Hidradenitis suppurativa	The inhibition of the TNF-α cytokine	[182]
Bevacizumab	mAb, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor	Cancer	The improvement of oxygen perfusion and anti-inflammatory response by inhibiting the VEGF and its receptor	[183]
Camrelizumab	mAb, programmed cell death protein 1 (PD‐1) immune checkpoint inhibitor	Relapsed or refractory classical Hodgkin lymphoma	The prevention of T cell death, the regulation of cytokine production and the reduction of organ dysfunction by blockade of PD‐1	[184]
Eculizumab	mAb, anti- complement 5 (C5)	Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, and atypical (complement-mediated) HUS (aHUS)	The inhibition of complement-mediated acute kidney injury by suppressing C5	[185]
Sirolimus, also known as Rapamycin	The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway inhibitor	Tuberous sclerosis	Inhibits the proliferation of effector T-cell and promotes the accumulation of Treg. It can decrease damage from the immune during COVID-19 infection	[186]
Telmisartan, Losartan	Angiotensin receptor blockers	Hypertension	The binding to the AT1 receptor and its irreversible block, the prevention of SARS‐CoV‐2 interaction with the ACE2 catalytic site	[187]
Valsartan	Nonpeptide angiotensin receptor antagonist	Chronic symptomatic heart failure	The block of the receptor of angiotensin II and maximize the anti-inflammatory properties of an increased natriuretic peptide system	[188]
Captopril	ACE inhibitor	Hypertension	The increase of ACE2 levels and promote the anti-inflammatory RAS axis in the lung	[189]
N-Acetylcysteine (NAC)	Glutathione precursor with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties	Substance use disorders	The lowering mucus viscosity and the regulation of redox state due to restoring thiol pools	[190]
Bromhexine	TMPRSS2 inhibitor	Mucolytic cough suppressant	The inhibition of TMPRSS2-specific viral entry	[191]
Vitamin C	Antioxidant	Viral infections	The inhibition of cytokine storm, the promotion of innate antiviral immunological response, the prevention of excessive inflammatory response, the reduction of lung inflammation and injury, and the restoring of endothelial function	[192]
Vitamin D	Secosteroid	Supplements	The inhibition of expression of inflammatory cytokines like L-1α, IL-1β, TNF-α	[193]
Curcumin	Natural polyphenolic compound	Food consumption	The inhibition of the entry of the virus, the suppression of assembling of the virus and viral protease, and the modulation of different cellular signaling pathways	[194]