Table 2.

Quantification measures of atrial cardiomyopathy

Measurement method	Parameters	References
X-ray	Dilated atrium
Surface electrocardiogramme	Prolonged P-waves, abnormal P-waves, P-wave terminal force in ECG lead V1, sinoatrial node dysfunction, atrial ectopy	82–86
ECGi, electrocardiographic imaging	Abnormal activation, prolonged activation time, slowing of conduction velocity	87,88
Echocardiogramme	Dilated atrium, reduced contractility, reservoir function, conduit function, emptying fraction, left atrial strain imaging	89–95
CT scan	Abnormal atrial function, fatty infiltration, morphology: atrial sphericity, left atrial appendage shape	96
MRI	Dilated atrium, decreased contractility, abnormal morphology: sphericity, fibrosis (late gadolinium enhancement)	97–103
Blood biomarkers	Natriuretic peptides—atrial dilatation, myocyte stretch	104–107
	Fibroblast growth factor—fibrosis
	Bone morphogenic protein-10—atrial remodelling
	Fatty acid binding protein 3—atrial metabolic disturbance
	C-reactive protein, Interleukin-6—inflammation
	Factor VIII, von Willebrand factor, Fibrinopeptide A—pre-thrombotic state, hypercoagulability
Electrophysiological 3-D mapping	Low voltage in sinus rhythm, prolonged atrial activation time, decreased conduction velocity	108–114
Biopsy	Fibrosis, fatty infiltration, collagen accumulation, amyloid depositions, endocardial remodelling, vascular rarefaction, molecular imaging	115

Summary of potential methods used to quantify atrial cardiomyopathy.