Table 5.
Caregiver and child characteristics.
| Study | Caregiver–child language intervention name | Group sample size | Mean child age at enrollment (months) | Child characteristics | Child gender | Caregiver relationship | Mean caregiver age (years) | Family race |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12 through 23 months | ||||||||
| Developmental disorder | ||||||||
| Fey et al., 2013 | a. Milieu Communication Teaching - High Intensity | 33 | 21.83 | DD; DS |
M = 61% F = 39% |
Parent | — | — |
| b. Milieu Communication Teaching - Low Intensity | 31 | 23 | DD; DS |
M = 65% F = 35% |
Parent | — | — | |
| Mahoney & Powell, 1988 | a. Transactional Intervention Program | 41 | 17.6 | DS; cerebral palsy; spina bifida; hydrocephalus; congenital infectious diseases; undiagnosed etiologies |
— | Mother; father |
Mother: 30.2 Father: 32.3 |
White = 100% |
| Yoder & Warren, 2002 | a. Responsivity Education and Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching | 19.5 | 21 | DD; DS; cerebral palsy; encephalitis |
M = 56% F = 44% |
Mother; father; foster parent; grandparent |
— | Black = 48% White = 48% Other = 4% |
| Autism | ||||||||
| Brian et al., 2016 | a. Social ABCs | 20 | 22.05 | Autism; at risk for autism |
M = 70% F = 30% |
Parent | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 10% White = 75% East Indian = 15% |
| Carter et al., 2011 | a. Hanen More Than Words | 32 | 21.11 | Autism; at risk for autism |
M = 82% F = 18% |
Parent | — | — |
| Stahmer et al., 2020 | a. Project ImPACT (Improving Parents as Communication Teachers) for Toddlers | 12 | 23.08 | DD; autism |
M = 92% F = 8% |
Parent | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 25% White = 33% Latino = 50% Multiracial = 8% Other = 33% |
| Language delay/disorder | ||||||||
| Rajesh & Venkatesh, 2019 | a. Low-Intensity Parent Training Program | 10 | 18.2 | Language delay | M = 70% F = 30% |
Mother; father |
— | — |
| Average (SD)
Min-max |
24.81 (11.04)
10–41 |
20.98 (2.05)
17.6–23.08 |
M = 71% F = 29% |
31.25 (1.48) 30.2–32.3 |
Asian/Pacific Islander = 18% Black = 48% East Indian = 15% Latino = 50% White = 64% Multiracial = 8% |
|||
| 24 through 35 months | ||||||||
| Developmental disorder | ||||||||
| Cycyk et al., 2020 | a. Language and Play Every Day en Español Intervention | 8 | 35.1 | DD; language delay (confirmed or at risk) |
M = 75% F = 25% |
Mother; father; grandparent |
45.9 | Latino = 100% |
| Fey et al., 2006 | a. Responsivity Education/Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching - Down syndrome | 13 | 25.31 | DS | — | Parent | — | Black or Asian/Pacific Islander = 16% |
| b. Responsivity Education/Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching - Other Etiology | 12 | 27.17 | DD | — | Parent | — | Black or Asian/Pacific Islander = 16% | |
| Iven et al., 1989 | a. Pragmatic Interaction Strategies Intervention | 7 | 27 | DD: DS; cerebral palsy; DHH; language delay |
— | Parent | — | — |
| Pennington et al., 2009 | a. It Takes Two to Talk | 11 | 26 | Cerebral palsy; myopathy |
M = 73% F = 27% |
Mother | — | — |
| Romski et al., 2010 | a. Parent-Implemented Communication Intervention - Augmented Communication Input | 21 | 29 | DS; cerebral palsy; language delay |
M = 68% F = 32% |
Mother; father |
37.33 | Black = 29% Asian/Pacific Islander = 10% White = 62% |
| b. Parent-Implemented Communication Intervention - Spoken communication | 21 | 29 | DS; cerebral palsy; language delay |
M = 68% F = 32% |
Mother; father |
37.33 | Black = 29% Asian/Pacific Islander = 10% White = 62% |
|
| c. Augmented Communication Output | 20 | 30 | DS; cerebral palsy; language impairment (at risk) |
M = 72% F = 32% |
Mother; father |
37.33 | Black = 30% Asian/Pacific Islander = 10% White = 60% |
|
| Yang, 2016 | a. Musical Bonds Program | 26 | 27.96 | DD; autism; DHH; DLD; motor delay |
M = 77% F = 23% |
Mother | 34.38 | Black = 23% White = 58% Latino = 8% Other = 12% |
| Autism | ||||||||
| Barrett et al., 2020 | a. Pivotal Response Intervention for Social Motivation | 12 | 35.75 | Autism | M = 92% F = 8% |
Parent | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 8% White = 75% Latino = 17% |
| Liu & Schertz, 2021 | a. Joint Attention Mediated Learning | 30 | 24.77 | Autism | M = 87% F = 13% |
Parent | 30.6 | Black = 17% White = 70% Latino = 3% Multiracial = 10% |
| Rogers et al., 2019 | a. Enhanced Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model | 21 | 25.2 | Autism | M = 71% F = 29% |
Parent | — | Black = 14% Asian/Pacific Islander = 5% White = 38% Other = 19% Not Reported = 33% |
| b. Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model | 24 | 25.2 | Autism | M = 67% F = 33% |
Parent | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 4% White = 50% Other = 13% Not Reported = 33% |
|
| Rollins et al., 2019 | a. Pathways | 32 | 28.8 | Autism | M = 69% F = 31% |
Parent | — | Black = 6% Asian/Pacific Islander = 22% White = 22% Latino = 50% |
| Language delay/disorder | ||||||||
| Baxendale et al., 2003 | a. Hanen Parent Program | 19 | 31.5 | Language delay | M = 74% F = 26% |
Parent | — | White = 100% |
| b. Conventional Clinic | 18 | 34.3 | Language delay | M = 89% F = 11% |
Parent | — | White = 100% | |
| Ciccone et al., 2012 | a. Parent-Focused Early Intervention Program | 18 | 33.4 | Language delay | M = 67% F = 33% |
Mother; father |
— | — |
| Falkus et al., 2016 | a. Parent–child Interaction Therapy | 18 | 29.6 | Language delay | M = 83% F = 17% |
Parent | — | — |
| Gibbard & Smith, 2016 | a. Enhanced Parent-Based Intervention | 18 | 30 | Language delay | — | Parent; caregiver |
— | — |
| Girolametto et al., 1996 | a. Hanen Program for Parents | 12 | 28.7 | Language delay | — | Mother | 35 | — |
| McDade & McCartan, 1998 | a. Hanen Program | 11 | 24 | DLD | — | Mother | — | — |
| Pearce et al., 1996 | a. Hanen Program for Parents | 8 | 30.3 | DLD | M = 63% F = 38% |
Mother | 32 | — |
| Roberts & Kaiser, 2012 | a. Parent-implemented Enhanced Milieu Teaching | 16 | 31 | DD; DLD | M = 88% F = 13% |
Mother; father | 32.69 | — |
| Roberts & Kaiser, 2015 | a. Enhanced Milieu Teaching | 45 | 30.3 | DD; language delay |
M = 82% F = 18% |
Caregiver | — | — |
| Suttora et al., 2021 | a. Oltre il Libro – Dialogic Book Reading | 24 | 30.86 | Language delay (confirmed or at risk) | M = 58% F = 42% |
Mother; father |
Mother: 40.04 father: 42.00 |
— |
| Tannock et al., 1992 | a. Hanen Early Language Parent Program | 8 | 24.8 | language delay (confirmed or at risk) | M = 50% F = 50% |
Mother | 36.9 | — |
| Average (SD) Min-max |
18.19 (8.70) 7–45 |
29.04 (3.29) 24–35.75 |
M = 74% F = 26% |
36.79 (4.36) 30.6–45.9 |
Asian/Pacific Islander = 10% Black = 21% Black or Asian/Pacific Islander = 16% Latino = 36% White = 63% Multiracial = 10% Other = 15% Not reported = 33% |
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| 36 through 48 months | ||||||||
| Developmental disorder | ||||||||
| Girolametto et al., 1998 | a. Hanen Program | 6 | 39.2 | DS | M = 83% F = 17% |
Mother | 32 | — |
| Girolametto, 1988 | a. Hanen Early Language Parent Program | 9 | 39 | DD; DS | M = 56% F = 44% |
Mother | 34.7 | — |
| Kaiser & Roberts, 2013 | a. Parent + Therapist Enhanced Milieu Teaching | 39 | 40.05 | DD; autism; DS |
M = 74% F = 26% |
Mother; father |
36 | — |
| Kot & Law, 1995 | a. Parent Linguistic Input | 7 | 39 | DD; DLD |
— | Parent | — | — |
| Weistuch et al., 1991 | a. Language Interaction Intervention Program – Site 1 | 16 | 42 | DD; DS |
— | Mother | — | — |
| b. Language Interaction Intervention Program – Site 2 | 10 | 42 | DD; DS |
— | Mother | — | — | |
| Autism | ||||||||
| Aldred et al., 2004 | a. Social Communication Intervention | 14 | 48 | Autism | M = 93% F = 7% |
Parent | — | Black = 7% White = 93% |
| Alquraini et al., 2018 | a. Responsive Teaching | 13 | 42 | Autism | M = 85% F = 16% |
Mother | 38.5 | — |
| Braiden et al., 2012 | a. Forward Steps Early Intervention Program with TEACCH Approach | 18 | 38 | Autism | M = 94% F = 6% |
Parent | — | — |
| Casenhiser et al., 2013 | a. Milton & Ethel Harris Research Initiative | 25 | 42.52 | Autism | — | Parent | — | — |
| Green et al., 2010 | a. Preschool Autism Communication Trial | 77 | 45 | Autism | M = 92% F = 8% |
Parent | 33 | White = 60% Other = 40% |
| Hampton et al., 2020 | a. Joint Attention, Structured Play, Engagement and Regulation plus Enhanced Milieu Teaching plus Speech-Generating Device | 34 | 43 | Autism | M = 76% F = 24% |
Mother; father; grandparent |
— | White = 64% Not reported = 36% |
| Ingersoll & Wainer, 2013 | a. Project ImPACT | 24 | 44.9 | Autism | M = 88% F = 13% |
Parent | — | — |
| Ingersoll et al., 2016 | a. Therapist-Assisted ImPACT Group | 14 | 41.57 | Autism | M = 79% F = 21% |
Mother | — | — |
| b. Self-Directed ImPACT Group | 13 | 46.08 | Autism | M = 61% F = 39% |
Mother; father |
— | — | |
| Matthews et al., 2018 | a. JumpStart | 18 | 40.83 | Autism (diagnosed or at risk) | — | Mother; father |
34.61 | — |
| McGarry et al., 2020 | a. Pivotal Response Training | 11 | 36.82 | Autism | M = 73% F = 27% |
Mother; father | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 18% White = 27% Latino = 36% Multiracial = 10% Other = 10% |
| Minjarez et al., 2011 | a. Pivotal Response Training | 17 | 47 | Autism | — | Parent | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 28% White = 33% Latino = 11% Other = 28% |
| Noyan Erbas et al., 2020 | a. Hanen More Than Words | 16 | 36.14 | Autism | — | Parent | 33 | — |
| Sengupta et al., 2020 | a. Project ImPACT (Improving Parents as Communication Teachers) | 57 | 43.2 | Autism | M = 84% F = 16% |
Mother | 34.18 | — |
| Venker et al., 2012 | a. Hanen More Than Words | 7 | 41.14 | Autism | — | Mother; father |
— | — |
| Wainer et al., 2021 | a. Stepped-care Online Reciprocal Imitation Training | 10 | 40.1 | Autism | M = 80% F = 20% |
Mother | — | Asian/Pacific Islander = 10% Black = 40% Latino = 40% Multiracial = 10% |
| Language delay/disorder | ||||||||
| Tannock et al., 1992 | a. Hanen Early Language Parent Program | 8 | 40.3 | Language delay (confirmed or at risk) | M = 53% F = 47% |
Mother | 33.6 | — |
| Average (SD) Min-max |
20.13 (17.21) 6–77 |
41.65 (3.09) 36.14–48 |
M = 78% F = 22% |
34.40 (1.93) 32.00–38.50 |
Asian/Pacific Islander = 19% Black = 24% Latino = 29% White = 56% Multiracial = 10% Other = 26% Not reported = 36% |
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Note. Only studies where the language intervention group had promising or compelling evidence are included in the table. Em dashes indicate data not reported. DD = developmental delay; DS = Down syndrome; DLD = developmental language disorder; F = female; M = male; TEACCH = Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children; ImPACT = Improving Parents as Communication Teachers.