Table 1.
Effects of milk thistle (MT) in chickens (Gallus gallus) poisoned by different types of mycotoxins (MyT). If not diversely reported in the section effects the results are referred to the control group without treatment.
| Animal | MT (Type and Dose) | My (Type, Dose, and Route) | Exposure (Time) | Effects | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Broiler (14-day-old) | SIL-Indena 1 (phytosome complex of SIL+phospholipids in a molar ratio of 1:2): 600 mg/kg-BW via gavage | AFB1: 0.8 mg/kg/diet | 35 days | Performance AFB1: <*BW and FI. No difference in FCR in all groups. SIL group >**BW and FI. Biochemical parameters AFB1 group: <ALT. AFB1 + SIL group: no difference in ALT activity. Histopatology/organ lesions No change in liver weights in all groups. In AFB1-treated animals, the liver showed multifocal portal infiltration (mononucleates, granulocytes, and eosinophils) diffused in the parenchyma (portal areas), and necrosis. AFB1 + SIL group: <severe lesions. |
[40] |
| in vitro model of the stomach and intestinal tracts of chickens (Erlenmeyer flask) | Esterified MT seed 3: 125–250 mg | AFB1 (from A. flavus colture): 250–500 μg/kg | 37 °C for 3 h | Percentage of absorption ratio of AFB1 by MT seed at pH 4.5 to 6.5 Compared to respective positive control: At 250 µg/kg AFB1 only as a control: 0 At 500 µg/kg AFB1 only as a control: 0 At 125 mg of MT + 250 µg/kg AFB1: 30.14 ± 3.24 At 125 mg of MT+500 µg/kg AFB1: 26.15 ± 2.48 At 250 mg of MT + 250 µg/kg AFB1: 48.91 ± 3.69 At 250 mg of MT + 500 µg/kg AFB1: 41.39 ± 4.36 |
[43] |
| Broiler (1-day-old) | MT seed powder (MT): 10 g/kg/diet vs. TB (Mycoad): 3 g/kg/diet |
Direct inoculation of A. flavus culture AFB1 producer in feed: 80–520 μg/kg/diet | 5 weeks | Performance In control and MyT + MT group: >BW. BWG did not differ between the group treated with MT or TB. MT group: >BWG, water intake; <FCR. MyT + MT group: <FCR. Immunological parameters MyT group: <ND, IB, IBD antibody titers. MyT + MT group: >ND, IB, IBD antibody titers compared also to MyT + TB group. Histopatology/organ lesions MyT group: <thymus and bursa weight but no differences in other groups. MyT + MT group: weight of bursa restored and high weight of spleen compared to other groups. |
[44] |
| Broiler (1-day-old) | MT dried seed: 10 g/kg/diet vs. TB (Mycoad): 3 g/kg/diet |
AFB1 (from A. flavus colture): 80 µg/kg/diet (for 1 week) and 520 µg/kg/diet (for 4 weeks) | 5 weeks | Performance AFB1 group: <BWG, FI, and FCR. MT + AFB1: >BWG, and FI. In all treatment groups: >FCR. MT + AFB1 group: better FCR compared to the others and control group. Biochemical parameters AFB1 group: <total protein; >ALP, ALT, AST. MT and TB group: <ALP, ALT, AST; >total protein. Histopatology/organ lesions AFB1 group: pale, enlarged (swollen), yellow friable livers with pinpoint hemorrhages, swollen kidneys, and atrophy of the bursa and thymus. MT + AFB1 group: <lesions induced by AFB1. TB group: no appreciable modifications in the lesions. |
[45] |
| Broiler (7-day-old, male Ross 308) | SIL: 50–1000 ppm/kg/diet | AFB1 (from A. parasiticus): 0.5–2 ppm/kg/diet | 42 days | Performance AFB1 group: <DFI, DWG, and >FCR. SIL + AFB1 group: >DFI, DWG, and <FCR. Histopatology/organ lesions AFB1 group: >heart weight. AFB1 (2 ppm) group: <in villi height, VH:CD, villi surface area, apparent villi absorptive area, and muscular diameter in jejunal sections. AFB1 + SIL group: any influence on organs weight. SIL (500 ppm) + AFB1 group: <crypt depth and goblet cell count; >villi height and width, VH:CD, villi surface area, apparent villi absorptive area, and muscular diameter. SIL (1000 ppm) + AFB1 (0.5 ppm) group: mitigated the depressed villi height, and VH:CD. Meat/carcass characteristics AFB1 group: <carcass yield AFB1 + SIL group: >carcass yield. Microbiota AFB1 group: >E. coli, Salmonella, Klebsiella count. SIL (500 ppm) group: <E. coli, Salmonella, Klebsiella count, and total negative bacteria. SIL (1000 ppm) + AFB1 (0.5 ppm) group: <count of negative bacteria. |
[46] |
| Broiler (11-day-old, male Ross 308) | SIL (purity 60%): 1%/kg/diet | OTA (from A. ochraceus culture): 3 mg/kg/diet | 32 days (broiler age 42 days) | Biochemical parameters OTA group: >glucose, uric acid, AST, and ALT. SIL group: <glucose, uric acid, AST, and ALT. SIL + OTA group: <AST, ALT. Organ lesions Only in the OTA group: small hemorrhages on the epicardium and duodenal mucosa, catarrhal enteritis. Kidneys and liver: congestion and enlargement. OTA + SIL group: no macroscopic lesions observed. Histopathology Compared to the OTA group in the OTA + SIL group: slight congestion of peritubular capillaries focal granular degeneration in the epithelial cells of convoluted tubules in kidneys, and depletion cells in the intestinal mucosa. In the liver, less cloudy swelling and granular or vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes. |
[47] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, Cobb 500) | Commercial SIL (SIL 84.16%): 100 mg/kg/diet | AFB (from A. flavus culture): 0.05 ppm/kg/diet + FUM (from F. verticillioides culture): 20 ppm/kg/diet | 41 days | Performance MyT group: <WG, <FI, and >FCR. These effects were reduced by SIL. Biochemical parameters MyT group: >ALT, AST, uric acid. MyT + SIL group: <ALT activity. Histopatology/organ lesions No histological lesions in the liver and intestines of chickens in any group, but in the SIL group: >villus height and crypt depth. Meat/carcass characteristics In SIL + MyT group: <water cooking loss; >PUFA content (the same in SIL group). |
[48] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, Ross 308) | MT seed: 0.5–1%/kg/diet | AFB1: 250-500 ppb/kg/diet | 35 days | Performance AFB1 (250–500 ppb) group: <BW; >aggressive behavior, and disarray wings. Immunity After SRBC injection: no changes in antibody titer (NDV and AI) in any MT treatment group, but decreased in only AFB1 group. Histopatology/organ lesions AFB1 (500 ppb) group: <intestine length of the ileum and duodenum plus jejunum. AFB1 (250–500 ppb) + MT (0.5–1%): >intestine length of duodenum plus jejunum. |
[49] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, Ross 308) | MT seed: 5–10 g/kg/diet | AFB1 (from A. flavus colture): 250–500 ppb/kg/diet | 35 days | Digestibility of nutrients AFB1 (500 ppb) group: <ileal digestibility of dry matter, Ca, crude protein, and apparent digestible energy. MT (5–10 g) group: >digestibility of crude protein and Ca, AFB1 (250–500 ppb) + MT (5–10 g) group: no differences in Ca and crude protein digestibility. Histopatology/organ lesions AFB1 (500 ppb) group: <villus length, villus width, and VL/CD. AFB1 (250–500 ppb) + MT (5–10 g) group: no differences. |
[50] |
| in vitro primary chicken hepatocytes | SIL 0.1–1–10 μg/mL | OTA:1 μg/mL | 24 h At 37 °C | Cells response to OTA OTA: hepatocellular injury and >ALT, AST, MDA, mRNA expression of apoptosis-associated genes, and apoptosis rate; <SOD, and GSH levels. SIL treatment response SIL (0.1–1 μg/mL) + OTA: >cell variability, SOD, GSH (at 10 μg/mL SIL: <cell variability), ALT (no changes for AST activity); <MDA, mRNA expression of apoptosis-associated genes, and apoptosis rate. |
[51] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, male Ross 308) | MT seed: 0–0.5–1%/kg/diet | AFB1 (from A. flavus colture): 250–500 ppb/kg/diet | 21 days | Biochemical parameters AFB1 (250-500 ppb) group: <glucose, Ca, HDL, creatinine; >AST, ALT. MT (0.5–1%)+AFB1 (500 ppb) group: >glucose; <AST, and creatinine. MT (1%) + AFB1 (250–500 ppb) group: >HDL. |
[52] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, male Ross 308) | MT seed: 0.5–1%/kg/diet | AFB1: 250–500 ppb/kg/diet | 5 weeks | Biochemical parameters AFB1 (500 ppb) group: <albumin, direct bilirubin, Ca, and P; >uric acid, glucose, total bilirubin, ALT, AST, and γ-GT. MT (0.5–1%) + AFB1 group: <uric acid, glucose, AST, and γ-GT. |
[53] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, male, Ross 308) | MT seed: 10 g/kg/diet | AFB1 (from A. flavus colture): 2 mg/kg/diet + E. coli challenge | 21 days | Performance (before and after the challenge) AFB1 group: no difference in BWG and FI compared to other groups. MT + AFB1 group: <FCR, only from 0 to 7 days. Biochemical parameters (before and after the challenge) AFB1 group: <Ca and HDL; >ALT, AST. AFB1 + MT group: >Ca; <ALT, AST. Redox parameters (before and after the challenge) AFB1 group: >MDA in muscle. AFB1 + MT: <MDA in muscle. Immune system responses (before and after the challenge) No differences after the challenge. |
[54] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, male Ross 308) | MTPowder 2: 10 g/kg/diet vs. TB (Toxofix-Arka): 1 g/kg/diet vs. Spirulina platensis (SP) 10 g/kg/diet |
AFB1 (from an A. parasiticus culture): 0.6 mg/kg/diet | 42 days | Performance AFB1 group: <BW, and FI; >FCR. AFB1 + MT, AFB1 + TB, and AFB1 + SP group: >BWG, FI, but not in FCR. Biochemical parameters AFB1 group: >AST, and ALT. AFB1 + MT, AFB1 + TB, and AFB1 + SP group: <AST and ALT. Immunity AFB1 + MT group: <response to antibody titers against SRBC, and IgT titers compared to other groups. Microbiota AFB1 + MT, AFB1 + TB, and AFB1 + SP group: low Coliforms count. |
[55] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, Ross 308) | MT seed powder: 0.5%/kg/diet plant powder: 1%/kg/diet extract: 600–1000 mg/kg/diet | AFB1: 500 ppb/kg/diet | 35 days | Performance AFB1 group: <BWG; >FCR, and ALT. MT (1%) powder + AFB1 group: >BW; <FCR. MT seed powder (0.5%), plant powder (1%), and MT (1000 mg/kg) plant extract + AFB1 group: <ALT. |
[56] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, male Ross 308) | MT seed: 0.5% vs. TB (Sodium Bentonite): 0.5% | AFB1: 500 ppm/kg/diet | 4 weeks | Biochemical parameters AFB1 group: <albumin. AFB1 + TB group: >albumin. AFB1 + TB + MT: >albumin; <AST. MT + AFB1: <AST, ALT and LDH. |
[57] |
| Broiler (1-day-old, male Ross 308) | SIL (purity 60%): 1% kg/diet | OTA (from A. ochraceus culture): 3 mg/kg/diet | 42 days | Biochemical parameters OTA group: <lysozyme and beta-lysine concentration. SIL + OTA group: lysozyme concentrations, and beta-lysine activity not restored. |
[58] |
| White Leghorn cockerel (1-day-old) | SIL 10 g/kg/diet + Vit. E: 200 mg/kg/diet | OTA (from A. Ochraceus culture): 1–2 mg/kg/diet | 42 days | Immunity Antibody titers against SRBC injection OTA (2 mg) + SIL: <titers. IgG titers in OTA (2 mg) + Vit. E, OTA (2 mg) + SIL, and OTA (2 mg) + Vit. E + SIL group: significant differences. At 14 days post-p.i. OTA alone (1 mg), OTA (2 mg) + Vit. E, OTA (2 mg) + SIL, and OTA (2 mg) + Vit. E + SIL group: <total Ig titers. OTA (1–2 mg), OTA (2 mg) + Vit. E, OTA (2 mg) + SIL, and OTA (2 mg) + SIL + Vit. E group: <titers. |
[59] |
1 silybin 49.1%, isosilibin 14.3%, silydianin 14.6%, silychristin 8.3%, taxifolin 4.3%; 2 silychristin 2851 mg/kg, silybin B 8864 mg/kg, silymarin 100 mg/kg; 3 taxifolin 2.42 ± 0.02 mg/g-DW(dry weight), silychristin 2.28 ± 0.02 mg/g-DW, silydianin 4.31 ± 0.04 mg/g-DW, silybin A 1.25 ± 0.009 mg/g-DW, silybin B 3.55 ± 0.008 mg/g-DW, isosilibin A 2.45 ± 0.01 mg/g-DW, isosilibin B 2.72 ± 0.02 mg/g-DW. *<: poor, worse, decrease; **>; good, improve, increase.