Table 1.

Main results of the 17 studies included in the review.

Authors/Year/Country 1	Journal	Title	Main Results
Haas et al. [15]/2016/USA	Cancer	Disparities in the Use of Screening Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Breast in Community Practice by Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status	Among patients with a lower risk of developing breast cancer (<20%), non-Hispanic white women were 62% more likely than nonwhite women to undergo MRI (95% CI [1.32–1.98]). Of these, those with higher levels of education (43%), and especially those with academic degrees (132%), were more likely to receive MRI.
Elewonibi et al. [16]/2018/USA	Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health	Examining Mammography Use by Breast Cancer Risk, Race, Nativity, and Socioeconomic Status	Being a foreigner is an independent factor that decreases the probability of receiving a mammogram by about 10% (OR: 0.904, p < 0.05). If the variables of socioeconomic status and social resources are added as controls, higher levels are related to higher probability of mammography.
Shon et al. [17]/2019/USA	PLoS ONE	Predictors of never having a mammogram among Chinese, Vietnamese, and Korean immigrant women in the U.S.	The odds of never having had a mammogram were higher in Korean women (OR: 1.80, 95% CI [1–3.22]), unmarried women (OR: 1.74, 95% CI [1.08–2.82]) and non-US citizens (OR 2.56, 95% CI [1.44–4.55]). Conversely, they were lower in women aged 50–59 (OR:0.37, 95% CI [0.15–0.89]) and 60–69 years (OR: 0.36, 95% CI [0.17–0.75]) compared with those aged 70–85 years.
Henderson et al. [18]/2020/USA	Journal of Women’s Health	The Role of Social Determinants of Health in Self-Reported Access to Health Care Among Women Undergoing Screening Mammography	Compared with white women, more barriers were reported among Black (OR: 1.30) and Hispanic (OR:1.66) women. They were also higher in areas with a high diversity index (OR: 1.28), where they were lower among women with moderate (OR: 0.69) or high incomes (OR: 0.85).
Lee et al. [19]/2021/USA	JAMA Network Open	Comparative Access to and Use of Digital Breast Tomosynthesis (DBT) Screening by Women’s Race/Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status	Black women experienced lower DBT use (RR: 0.83) compared with white women (RR: 0.98); also, women with lower educational attainment (RR: 0.79–0.88) and lower income (RR 0.89) had lower use relative to educated women (RR: 0.90–0.96) and those with the highest income (RR: 0.99).
Warnecke et al. [20]/2021/USA	Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention	Multilevel Examination of Health Disparity: The Role of Policy Implementation in Neighbourhood Context, in Patient Resources, and in Healthcare Facilities on Later Stage of Breast Cancer Diagnosis	After adjusting for setting, mode of detection and resources, no significant differences were found in the late diagnosis of breast cancer among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic women compared with non-Hispanic white women.
Gibbons J. [21]/2021/USA	Race and Social Problems	Neighbourhood Racial/Ethnic Composition and Medical Discrimination’s Relation to Mammograms: A Philadelphia Case Study	Black and Hispanic women were 5 times more likely to have experienced discrimination (11.3% and 11.2%, respectively) than white women (2.2%). Those who had access problems owing to transportation were 26.4% less likely to attend a screening, while those with private insurance were 323.2% more likely.
Cullerton et al. [22]/2016/Australia	Health Promotion Journal of Australia	Cancer screening education: can it change knowledge and attitudes among culturally and linguistically diverse communities in Queensland, Australia?	After education sessions, a decrease of 5% (p = 0.04) in the lack of knowledge about breast screening was observed. Likewise, after the session, there was an improvement in the ability to identify the correct age to start screening (14.8% presession vs. 37.7% postsession) and the frequency of screening (39.3% vs. 90.2).
Molina et al. [23]/2017/USA	Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities	Neighbourhood predictors of mammography barriers among US-based Latinas	The proportion of women who reported sociocultural, economic and lack of knowledge reasons for not having undergone mammography were 0.19, 0.31 and 0.35, respectively. Women residing in areas with a lower concentration of Latinos less frequently reported economic and lack of knowledge reasons (p < 0.05).
Kim et al. [24]/2018/USA	Cancer	Gendered and Racialized Social Expectations, Barriers, and Delayed Breast Cancer Diagnosis	Women who identified barriers were more likely to receive follow-up mammography screening (31.2% vs. 48.4%, p < 0.01). Black women (prediction value 1.91, p < 0.01), those exhibiting distrust (prediction value 0.92, p < 0.01) and those living in poverty (prediction value 4.69, p < 0.005) were less likely to report barriers.
Jin et al. [25]/2019/USA	Ethnicity and Disease	Analyzing Factors of Breast Cancer Screening Adherence among Korean American Women Using Andersen’s Behavioral Model of Healthcare Services Utilization	Personal history of cancer (p = 0.0027), having undergone an annual health checkup (p < 0.0001), having health insurance (p = 0.0025), receiving a recommendation by healthcare personnel (p = 0.0027) and high level of English (p = 0.0021) are related to higher adherence to mammography.
Lee et al. [19]/2019/USA	Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work	Andersen’s Behavioral Model to Identify Correlates of Breast Cancer Screening Behaviors among Indigenous Women	Older women (OR: 1.116, p < 0.001), those with a family history of cancer (OR: 2.742, p < 0.05) and those with a school diploma (OR: 13.203, p < 0.01) or academic degree (OR: 6.750, p < 0.01) showed higher levels of mammography use. Those who had heard of the screening program also showed higher levels (OR: 36.250, p < 0.01).
An et al. [26]/2020/USA	Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health	Literacy of Breast Cancer and Screening Guideline in an Immigrant Group: Importance of Health Accessibility	Marital status of married (OR: 29.152, p < 0.01) and having undergone an annual health checkup (OR: 16.148, p < 0.05) is related to a higher level of awareness of breast cancer–screening programs.
Chan et al. [27]/2021/Singapore	Frontiers in Oncology	Cancer Screening Knowledge and Behavior in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population: The Singapore Community Health Study	Of the participants, only 35.1% claimed to have participated in a breast cancer–screening program. Participants with higher educational levels showed a 22% higher participation rate (aPR: 1.22, p < 0.032), as did those with high income by 7.1% (aPR: 1.71, p < 0.001).
Orji et al. [28]/2021/USA	Cancer Causes and Control	Racial disparities in routine health checkup and adherence to cancer screening guidelines among women in the United States of America	Women who had received an annual health examination were more likely to participate in cervical (OR: 3.24, p < 0.05) and breast (OR: 5.86, p < 0.05) cancer–screening programs, compared with those who did not receive screening—with the exception of Hispanic women, in whom this relationship was not observed.
Hong et al. [29]/2018/USA	BMC Women’s Health	Factors affecting trust in healthcare among middle-aged to older Korean American women	A longer stay in the US increases the level of trust in the health system (p < 0.001). The feeling of discrimination causes distrust in the health system (p < 0.001). Acculturation was related to a higher level of trust in healthcare providers (p = 0.002).
Agrawal et al. [30]/2021/USA	Int. Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health	Factors Associated with Breast Cancer Screening Adherence among Church-Going African American Women	Older age (OR: 1.015), having health insurance (OR: 2.388), having a good doctor–patient relationship (OR: 1.485) and having a previous diagnosis of cancer (OR: 2.244) were associated with a higher level of adherence.

¹ The studies are listed organized by year of publication and main focused topic: (i) race and/or ethnicity and/or foreign nationality (the first 6), (ii) low educational level (the middle 8) and (iii) medical mistrust (the last 2).