Table 3.
Ordinary Least Squares Regression of Internalizing Behavior on Family Structure, Resources, Selectivity and Other Controls in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States (N = 3802; N = 15,540; N = 16,158).
| Australia | UK | US | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
| Family Structure | ||||||
| Biological Cohabiting Stable | 0.039 (0.061) | −0.041 (0.059) | 0.119 *** (0.012) | 0.065 *** (0.012) | 0.270 *** (0.076) | 0.089 (0.074) |
| Biological Single Stable | 0.415 *** (0.096) | 0.129 (0.095) | 0.204 *** (0.012) | 0.070 ** (0.021) | 0.551 *** (0.030) | 0.286 *** (0.077) |
| Post-Birth Biological Married | 0.337 *** (0.054) | 0.157 * (0.055) | 0.144 *** (0.009) | 0.041 * (0.019) | 0.378 *** (0.022) | 0.218 ** (0.071) |
| Post-Birth Stepfamily | 0.003 (0.076) | −0.107 (0.073) | 0.071 *** (0.010) | 0.026 * (0.010) | 0.202 *** (0.026) | 0.119 *** (0.026) |
| Post-Birth Biological Cohabiting | 0.505 *** (0.131) | 0.462 *** (0.126) | 0.172 *** (0.020) | 0.088 *** (0.019) | 0.451 *** (0.030) | 0.323 *** (0.031) |
| Post Birth Social Family | 0.737 *** (0.158) | 0.524 ** (0.152) | 0.187 *** (0.017) | 0.082 *** (0.017) | 0.218 *** (0.058) | 0.070 (0.058) |
| Post-Birth Transition to Single | 0.388 *** (0.077) | 0.235 ** (0.076) | 0.215 *** (0.021) | 0.112 *** (0.021) | 0.484 *** (0.043) | 0.297 *** (0.044) |
| Resources | ||||||
| Paternal labor force participation | ||||||
| Part-time | 0.122 * (0.061) | −0.011 (0.010) | −0.001 (0.043) | |||
| Homemaker | 0.021 * (0.009) | |||||
| Student | ||||||
| Unemployed, looking | 0.059 (0.063) | |||||
| Other | 0.118 ** (0.044) | |||||
| No father | −0.012 (0.014) | −0.058 (0.073) | ||||
| Maternal labor force participation | ||||||
| Part-time | 0.177 *** (0.042) | 0.001 (0.006) | −0.022 (0.020) | |||
| Homemaker | 0.037 *** (0.007) | |||||
| Student | ||||||
| Unemployed, looking | 0.037 (0.045) | |||||
| Other | −0.043 (0.036) | 0.018 (0.020) | ||||
| No mother | −0.062 (0.041) | 0.041 (0.089) | ||||
| Family income | −0.000 * (0.036) | −0.015 *** (0.003) | −0.030 *** (0.004) | |||
| Number of siblings | −0.040 * (0.017) | 0.005 * (0.002) | 0.006 (0.007) | |||
| Selectivity Issues | ||||||
| Parental education | ||||||
| High school or less | −0.024 (0.013) | |||||
| Some college | −0.042 *** (0.007) | −0.005 (0.033) | ||||
| First degree | −0.053 *** (0.009) | −0.015 (0.033) | ||||
| Higher tertiary degree | −0.055 *** (0.009) | −0.060 (0.037) | ||||
| Other educational qualification | −0.059 *** (0.010) | −0.106 ** (0.039) | ||||
| Maternal age at birth | −0.005 (0.003) | −0.002 *** (0.000) | 0.002 (0.001) | |||
| Child race | ||||||
| Hispanic | −0.120 *** (0.023) | |||||
| Black | 0.087 (0.045) | −0.150 *** (0.027) | ||||
| Black—African origin | −0.038 * (0.016) | |||||
| Black—Other origin | −0.011 (0.019) | |||||
| Asian | 0.068 * (0.016) | 0.264 *** (0.036) | ||||
| Chinese | 0.040 (0.062) | |||||
| Indian | 0.037 ** (0.014) | |||||
| Pakistani | 0.086 *** (0.011) | |||||
| Bangladeshi | 0.079 *** (0.019) | |||||
| Multiple ethnicities | 0.013 (0.013) | |||||
| Other ethnicity | 0.085 ** (0.032) | 0.011 (0.036) | ||||
| Other controls | ||||||
| Child is male | 0.041(0.030) | 0.021 *** (0.004) | 0.080 *** (0.016) | |||
| Child birthweight | −0.002 * (0.001) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | |||
| Preterm birth | −0.060(0.071) | 0.019 * (0.009) | 0.098 ** (0.034) | |||
| Child age at assessment | 0.118 * (0.050) | −0.009 (0.008) | −0.004 * (0.002) | |||
| Depression | 0.288 *** (0.016) | 0.095 *** (0.003) | 0.007 *** (0.001) | |||
| Constant | −0.087 *** | 1.58 ** | 1.244 *** | 1.908 *** | −0.133 *** | 0.53 *** |
Note: Model 1 includes Family Structure (FS), Model 2 includes FS and Resources, Selectivity, and Other Variables (all variables). Comparison Groups: Married Stable, Female, Less than secondary school, Full-time work. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.