Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies (n = 32).
| Study | Study Design | Population (n) | Age (Mean ± SD) | Duration/Frequency | Measures | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wolch et al. (2021) [29] |
RCT | Male recreational basketball players (n = 32) |
21.22 ± 2.01 yrs. | Two sessions | CSAI-2R, TMS, MAAS | A 15 min mindfulness intervention appears to have some effects on participants first basketball free-throw shot and state anxiety when performing under pressure. |
| Shaabani et al. (2019) [30] |
RCT | Experienced male basketball players (n = 72) |
28.6 ± 4.0 yrs. | Two sessions | SAS-2, DISE, DSS, PANAS, CHIME, BSCS, EDMC, TMS | A brief mindfulness intervention mitigates the effects of ego depletion in a basketball free-throw task. |
| Dehghani et al. (2018) [31] |
RCT | The women’s basketball team of both Iran and Tehran University of Medical Sciences (n = 31) |
23.44 ± 0.49 yrs.; 22.34 ± 0.34 yrs. | Eight sessions | SPQ, AAQ, SCAT | Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment-based approach is an effective intervention to increase athletic performance and reduce experiential avoidance and sports anxiety in athletes. |
| Gross et al. (2018) [13] |
RCT | Women’s basketball players from an NCAA Division III university athletic department in the northeastern United States (n = 22) | Nil | 7 weeks | CCAPS-62, AAQ-II, SPQ, WAI-S, DERS, MAAS, MC-C | The MAC is an effective intervention for the mental health and sport performance needs of female collegiate athletes. |
| Josefsson et al. (2019) [32] |
RCT | Competitive elite athletes (n = 69) |
20.9 ± 4.17 yrs. | 7 weeks | AMQ, DERS | MAC approach is a more effective intervention compared to the PST condition in reducing emotion regulation difficulties, as well as enhancing sport-relevant mindfulness skills and perceived athletic training performance in elite sport. |
| Röthlin et al. (2016) [33] |
RCT | Elite athletes from 23 different sports (n = 133) |
23.68 ± 6.12 yrs. | Nil | CHIME, CAI-T, Self-generated three-item measure | Trait mindfulness is related to fewer performance worries and prevents the remaining worries from influencing athletes’ behavior, thereby helping them to perform better. |
| John et al. (2011) [34] | RCT | Male elite level shooters (n = 96) |
29.5 ± 4.3 yrs. | 4 weeks | Measure of shooting accuracy or shooting score | MMT may decrease PCS and will enhance PS. It is concluded that 4 weeks of MMT has an effect on HPA-Axis by decreasing the level of SC as a reliable physiological marker of PCS. |
| Kachanathu et al. (2013) [35] | RCT | Male elite level shooters (n = 110) |
29.5 ± 4 yrs. | 4 weeks | Measure of shooting accuracy | MMT may decrease PCS and therefore enhance SP. |
| Glass et al. (2019) [36] | RCT | University athletes (n = 52) |
19.32 ± 1.25 yrs. | 6 weeks | DASS-21, SWLS, FFMQ, AAQ-II, DFS-2, SAS, Mindfulness practice summary, SRF, CRF | Significant increases in flow, trait mindfulness, satisfaction with life, and self-rated sport performance, along with reductions in worry. |
| Röthlin et al. (2016) [33] | RCT | Elite, sub-elite, and recreational athletes (n = 108) |
Nil | 5 weeks | CAI-S, TOQS, TOPS, FFMQ-SF, AMQ, SEC-27, AAQ-II, EQ, DSS, ANT, TEOSQ, RSC, SCS, and BSI-18 | Both PST and MBI are expected to help improve functional behavior in athletes. |
| Mehrsafar et al. (2019) [37] | RCT | Elite Wushu athletes (n = 26) |
25.4 ± 2.4 yrs. | 8 weeks | CSAI-2R and MAAS | Mindfulness-based intervention might be associated with a diminished physiological and psychological stress responses to competition. |
| Carraça et al. (2019) [38] | RCT | Elite soccer athletes (n = 57) |
25.79 ± 3.3 yrs. | 8 weeks | AAQ-II, FFMQ, DFS-2, SCS, WBSI, BSI, Athlete’s—FAIP-A | MBSoccerP can be effective in enhancing elite soccer performance, self-compassion, psychological flexibility, mindfulness, and flow. |
| Carraça et al. (2019) [39] | RCT | Elite soccer athletes (n = 57) |
25.79 ± 3.3 yrs. | 8 weeks | AAQ-II, FFMQ, DFS-2, SCS, WBSI, BSI, Athlete’s—FAIP-A | Mindfulness-Based Soccer Program (MBSoccerP) is effective in increasing the attributes of mindfulness, self-compassion, and psychological flexibility and in terms that mediate the dispositional flow and peak performance on elite soccer players. |
| Mozafari Zadeh et al. (2019) [40] | RCT | Amateur soccer players (n = 44) | 24.15 (24.86 ± 4.68) (23.77 ± 1.95) yrs. | Seven sessions | Mindful Sport Performance Questionnaire, 7-point Likert scale (individual and team performance) and injury occurrence and severity |
Mindfulness training shows promise in preventing injury and improving performance. |
| Röthlin et al. (2020) [41] | RCT | Athletes from four sports (n = 95) |
24.43 ± 5.15 yrs. | 4 weeks | FFMQ-SF, TOPS, AAQ-II, SEC-27, TOQS, EQ, and ASOAF6 | Both forms of mental training led to improvements in performance-relevant psychological factors, especially concerning the handling of emotions and attention control. |
| Scott-Hamilton et al. (2016) [42] | RCT | Cyclists (n = 47) |
39.81 (38.96 ± 12.4; 40.65 ± 10.88) yrs. | 8 weeks | DFS-2, SAS-2, FFMQ, SASS | Mindfulness-based interventions tailored to specific athletic pursuits can be effective in facilitating flow experiences. |
| Baltar et al. (2018) [43] | RCT | Elite football players (n = 40) |
23.6 ± 1.4 yrs. | 12 weeks | ACS, KIMSs-Short | Mindfulness meditation does not improve attentional control or mindfulness skills; however, it prevents those variables from showing decreases among elite football players. |
| Liu et al. (2021) [44] | RCT | University athletes (n = 60) |
19.7 (19.9 ± 0.7; 19.5 ± 0.8) yrs. | Once | FFMQ, DFS-2, and RISC | Brief mindfulness training could significantly improve athletes flow and resilience; resilience partly mediated the effects of brief mindfulness training on flow. |
| Norouzi et al. (2020) [45] | RCT | Retired football players (n = 40) |
34.05 ± 1.72 yrs. | 8 weeks | PSS, BAI, MADRS, RSPWB | MBSR intervention has the potential to reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression and to increase their psychological well-being. |
| Coimbra et al. (2021) [46] | RCT | Elite female volleyball athletes (n = 30) |
<18 yrs. | 2 weeks | Total Quality Recovery scale, Mental Fatigue Visual Analog Scale, Physical Fatigue Visual Analog Scale |
The mindfulness intervention effectively attenuated the mental fatigue caused by competition in volleyball athletes. |
| Aherne et al. (2011) [47] | RCT | Athletes from a University High Performance Centre (n = 13) |
21.00 ± 1.68 yrs. | 6 weeks | DFS-2, CAMS-R | Mindfulness training appears to be an appropriate method to help athletes to achieve a flow state and, therefore, seems likely to be an effective performance enhancement strategy as well. |
| Jekauc et al. (2016) [48] | RCT | Students in sport science of Humboldt University Berlin (n = 46) |
23.4 ± 4.1 yrs. | 8 weeks | MAAS | BATL is an effective strategy to increase mindfulness in athletes. |
| Moen et al. (2015) [49] | RCT | Norwegian junior athletes in sports (n = 77) |
18 yrs. | 12 weeks | MAAS, PSS-14, ABQ, ASQ | Significant effects from the mindfulness intervention on athlete burnout. There were no significant effects found on perceived stress or perceived performance in school and sports. |
| Li et al. (2018) [50] | RCT | University athletes (n = 63) |
21.16 ± 1.79 yrs. | Once | PSQI, Rating Perceived Exertion Scale, PSAS, Five-item Chinese-translated State Version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Sleep and Health Research Laboratory’s Sleep Diary | The brief mindfulness induction may be an effective approach for decreasing pre-sleep arousal and improving sleep quality after night training among athletes. |
| Ajilchi et al. (2019) [51] | RCT | Male amateur basketball players (n = 30) |
22–24 yrs. | 6 weeks | Mindful Sport Performance Questionnaire, MT, SEIS | These findings may have implications on sport mindfulness training in increasing the MT and emotional intelligence of athletes. |
| Samadi et al. (2021) [52] | RCT | Male shooters (n = 24) | 17–22 yrs. | 6 weeks | Cortisol with ELISA method | The practice of psychological skills, especially mindfulness, can be used to reduce pre-competition stress. |
| Bagheri et al. (2021) [53] | RCT | Female recreational runners with patellofemoral Pain (n = 30) |
28.3 ± 7.08 yrs. | 8 weeks | Pain intensity, Knee Symptoms and Function, Global Rating of Change Scale, Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia, Pain Catastrophizing Scale, and Coping Strategies Questionnaire |
Mindfulness practice can be an effective adjunct to exercise therapy in the rehabilitation of PFP in recreational female runners. |
| Ivarsson et al. (2015) [54] | RCT | Junior elite soccer players (n = 41) |
16.97 ± 0.79 yrs. | 7 weeks | Nil | Applying mindfulness exercises in athletes daily training to help lower injury risk. |
| Mohebi et al. (2021) [55] | RCT | Female athletes at national competition level (n = 40) |
22.22 ± 2.40 yrs. | 7 weeks | MIS, SCS-SF, and SG-S | While the active control condition improved dimensions of mindfulness, self-compassion, and grit among female adult athletes, improvements were much stronger in the Mindfulness Acceptance Commitment condition. |
| Kittler et al. (2022) [56] | RCT | Pupils of a German elite sports school (n = 137) |
12.23 ± 0.50 yrs. | 6 weeks | FAIR-2 | The results of this study indicate that the Berlin Mindfulness-Based Training for Athletes (BATL) improved both sustained and selective attention in young athletes and that more training in the same amount of time resulted in higher scores in the assessment. |
| Lundgren et al. (2022) [57] | RCT | Junior elite ice hockey players (n = 34) |
18.09 ± 0.88 yrs. | 4 weeks | Coach Ratings, Version of the credibility questionnaire |
Significant effects on both objective performance outcomes (goals, assists, and taken shots) and blinded coach ratings of players performance, focus, and commitment to their development in favor of the ACT group. |
| Hut et al. (2021) [58] | RCT | Members of an NCAA Division III Track and Field team (n = 32) |
19.52 yrs. | 6 weeks | SDFS-2, CDFS-2, DASS-21, SAS-2, PHLMS, MIS, DERS-SF, BEAQ, SRF, PEQ | The 24 collegiate athletes who completed post-test measures showed significant improvements in sport anxiety and reported greater sport enjoyment and less influence of negative internal states on current sport performance; the MSPE group reported greater improvements in satisfaction with sport performance compared to PST. |
Note. RCT = randomized controlled trial; SD = standard deviation; MAC = Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment; PST = psychological skill training; MMT = mindfulness meditation therapy; PCS = Pre-Competition Stress; PS = Performance of Shooting; HPA: Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal; SC = Salivary Cortisol; MBI = mindfulness-based intervention; MBSR = mindfulness-based stress reduction; MSPE = mindful sport performance enhancement; CSAI-2R = Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-II Revised; TMS = Toronto Mindfulness Scale; MAAS = Mindful Attention Awareness Scale; SAS-2 = Sport Anxiety Scale-2; DISE = Daily Inventory of Stressful Events; DSS = Depletion Sensitivity Scale; CHIME = Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences; BSCS = Brief Self-Control Scale; EDMC = Ego-Depletion Manipulation Check; CAI-T = Competition Anxiety Inventory Trait; DASS-21 = Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales-21; SWLS = Satisfaction with Life Scale; FFMQ = Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; AAQ-II = Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II; DFS-2 = Dispositional Flow Scale; CRF = Coach’s Rating Form; SRF = Sport Rating Form; TOPS = Test of Performance Strategies; SEC-27 = Self-Assessment of Emotional Competencies; TOQS = Thought Occurrence Questionnaire for Sport; EQ = Experience Questionnaire; ASOAF= Action orientation after failure and state orientation after failure; DFS-2 = Dispositional Flow Scale-2; SASS = Sport Attribution Style Scale; PSS = Perceived Stress Scale; MADRS = Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale; RSPWB = Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being; PSQI = Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PSAS = Pre-sleep Arousal Scale; FAIR-2 = Frankfurt Attention Inventory-2; SDFS = Short Dispositional Flow Scale; CDFS-2 = Core Dispositional Flow Scale-2; PHLMS = Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale; DERS-SF = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-Short Form; BEAQ = Brief Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire; and PEQ = Program Evaluation Questionnaire.