Table 3.

Overview of used placebo control interventions per therapy type.

Therapy type	Total N	Placebo control or sham interventions	N	%
Manual therapy with spinal manipulation	49	Manual, simulated manoeuvre	30	61.2
		Manual, soft touch	9	18.4
		Manual, technique to different area	1	2.0
		Disabled device	6	12.2
		Rest time-control	1	2.0
		Other (therapist attention, general anaesthesia)	2	4.1
Craniosacral therapy and gentle myofascial release	22	Manual, simulated manoeuvre	2	9.1
		Manual, soft touch	8	36.4
		Disabled device	10	45.5
		Other (low-strength static magnets, active joint movement)	2	9.1
Other manual therapy	63	Manual, simulated manoeuvre	21	33.3
		Manual, soft touch	19	30.2
		Manual, technique to different area	1	1.6
		Manual, simulated manoeuvre and to different area	1	1.6
		Disabled device	16	25.4
		Other (time-attention control, therapist attention, active joint movement, 2x low-pressure algometry)	5	7.9
Rehabilitation or physiotherapy	22	Exercise, nonspecific	8	36.4
		Exercise, key components altered	1	4.5
		Disabled device	5	22.7
		Manual, simulated manoeuvre	1	4.5
		Manual, soft touch	1	4.5
		Educational attention control	5	22.7
		Other (nonspecific visualisation, rest + therapist attention)	2	9.1
Cognitive-behavioural and other psychotherapy	27	Multicomponent therapist interaction	11	40.7
		Educational attention control	7	25.9
		Cognitive task, nonspecific	2	7.4
		Writing attention control	2	7.4
		Other (relaxing music, nonspecific visualisation, open-label saline injection, nonhypnotic relaxation suggestions and white noise, nonspecific video and sound)	5	18.5
Spiritual, energetic, or esoteric healing	8	Simulated hands-off manoeuvre (actor)	7	87.5
		Simulated hands-on manoeuvre (actor)	1	12.5
Self-management	5	Rest time control	2	40.0
		Educational attention control	1	20.0
		Web site, nonspecific	1	20.0
		Other (white noise)	1	20.0
Other	2	Other (white noise, headphones without sound)	2	100.0

N = 198.