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. 2023 Jan 31;24(3):2684. doi: 10.3390/ijms24032684

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Hypothesized mechanisms underlying sex differences in the actions of elevated leptin and insulin levels to increase SNA during obesity. NPY: Neuropeptide Y; POMC: Pro-opiomelanocortin; ArcN: Arcuate nucleus; AngII: Angiotensin II; Ang-(1–7): Angiotensin 1–7; TyH: Tyrosine hydroxylase (marker of dopaminergic neurons); GABA: Gamma-aminobutyric acid; E2: Estrogen; SNA: Sympathetic nerve activity. Green arrows: stimulatory; red arrows: inhibitory. Dotted arrows indicate that NPY and POMC presympathetic neurons are resistant to the actions of leptin or insulin in obese females, whereas these actions are enhanced in obese males. See text and legend to Table 2 for details. Adapted in part from [24].