Table 6.

Modulation of foam cell formation, autophagy and M2 macrophage polarization.

Monoterpene	Experimental Model	Efficacy	Target/Pathway	Refs.
Isoborneol	RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with ox-LDL	Reduces the absorption of ox-LDL and the accumulation of intracellular lipids	Modulation of cell migration and polarity-related pathways may be involved	[185]
	RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with LPS+INF-γ or IL-4+IL-13	Promotes M2 macrophage polarization as shown by elevated expression of CD206, Arg-1 and IL-10	Activates the JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway	[186]
Eucalyptol	THP-1 or RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with ox-LDL	Suppresses foam cell formation and promotes cholesterol efflux	Upregulates the expression of LXRs and their target genes ABCA1 and ABCG1	[182,183]
Geniposide	ApoE−/− mice fed with HFD, RAW 264.7 cells treated with LPA	Inhibits atherosclerosis and attenuates foam cell formation by regulating both lipid uptake and efflux	Suppresses p38 MAPK and AKT signaling pathways	[184]
	BMDMs treated with ox-LDL	Inhibits foam cell formation and inflammatory response	Suppresses CD36 expression and NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways	[179]
	New Zealand rabbits fed with HFD	Inhibits atherosclerosis, suppresses M1 macrophage polarization, and promotes M2 polarization	Suppresses the FOS/ MAPK signaling pathway	[187]
	ApoE−/− mice fed with HFD, RAW 264.7 cells treated with ox-LDL	Inhibits the progression of atherosclerosis and reinforces macrophage autophagy	Suppresses the TREM2/mTOR axis	[188]
Genipin	BMDMs (M0, M1, M2-type)	M2 polarization induction and maintenance, along with suppressed pro-inflammatory M1/iNOS response	Activates the pSTAT6/PPARγ pathway	[189]
Catalpol	Postmenopausal atherosclerosis mouse model, J774A-1 macrophages treated with LPS+INF-γ	Prevents postmenopausal atherosclerosis, suppresses M1 macrophage polarization and promotes M2 polarization	Increases the expression of ERα	[190]
Paeoniflorin	Mouse BMDMs treated with LPS or IL-4	Suppresses M1 macrophage polarization and promotes M2 polarization	Decreases NF-κB and increases STAT6 signaling	[191]
	Mouse peritoneal macrophages treated with ox-LDL	Attenuates ox-LDL-induced foam cell formation	Suppression of NF-κB, ERK and p38 MAPK may be involved	[192]
Albiflorin	THP-1 cells treated with ox-LDL	Blocks foam cell formation	Modulates the LOX-1/NF-κB signaling pathway	[180]
Loganin	RAW 264.7 macrophages or peritoneal macrophages treated with LPS	Suppresses M1 macrophage polarization and promotes M2 polarization	Suppresses ERK and NF-κB signaling	[193]
Oleacein	Human monocyte-derived macrophages treated with ox-LDL	Decreases foam cell formation, reduces apoptosis, and shifts the polarization towards M2 macrophage phenotype	Suppresses the expression of CD36, SRA1 and LOX-1 and activates JAK/STAT3 pathway	[177]
	Human monocyte-derived macrophages treated with hemoglobin/haptoglobin complexes	Enhances M2 macrophage phenotype	Increases the expression of CD163 and IL-10 receptors as well as HO-1	[194]