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. 2023 Jan 30;24(3):2627. doi: 10.3390/ijms24032627

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematic relationship of adipokines, myokines, and cytokines. This figure shows adipokines, myokines, and cytokines and their producing cells. Adipokines include protective adiponectin produced from normal white adipocytes, and pathogenic contributor TNF-α which is produced from enlarged white adipocytes and macrophages. Myokines are produced by muscle cells. Cytokines are physiologically active substances produced by cells in the body. This scheme shows immune regulatory cytokines, namely Type 1 proinflammatory cytokines and Type 2 anti-inflammatory cytokines. These cytokines are produced from macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, NK cells, NKT cells, T cells, and B cells. CD4⁺ T cells are classified into Th1/Th2, Th17, and regulatory T cells (Treg), and each of them produces different cytokines. TNF-α belongs to both adipokines and proinflammatory cytokines. IL-6 is also classified into proinflammatory cytokines and myokines.